An Education in Awareness: Self, Motivation, and Self-Regulated Learning in Contemplative Perspective

Can the virtual implementation of a college course on human flourishing improve student flourishing during COVID-19? A multi-university study

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate student effects of participating in an undergraduate academic course, Art and Science of Human Flourishing, that was offered in a synchronous, virtual format during the Fall 2020 semester at three universities.

PARTICIPANTS

Three combined cohorts of undergraduate students from three universities (n = 168).

METHODS

A pre/post/5-month follow-up, propensity-score matched evaluation was conducted. Measures assessed attention skills, social-emotional skills, flourishing, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality.

RESULTS

Relative to comparisons, students in the course reported significant improvements in proximal outcomes related to mindfulness, compassion, and common humanity, as well as decreases in depressive symptoms. Improvements in distal outcomes of flourishing and depressive symptoms were significant at post-course but did not maintain significance at five-month follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The academic study of human flourishing and contemplative education offers a promising and unique approach to supporting undergraduate mental health and well-being, even in virtual settings.

How technology influences English learning attainment among Chinese students

The purpose of this research includes analyzing the interaction between online English learning motivations, digital readiness, academic engagement, self-regulated English learning attainment, and technology self-efficacy. These interactions were examined based on data gathered from learners in online English courses through the method of structural equation modeling. Analysis found that online English learning motivation has a significant impact on the learners' level of digital readiness and levels of academic engagement, thereby underlining its importance in getting learners ready for meaningful navigation of the digital environments with emphasis on specific academic tasks. Moreover, digital readiness and academic engagement mediate the link between online English learning motivation and online self-regulated learning, thus signifying the role of these variables in achieving translation of motivation into efficient self-regulation. Moreover, online English learning motivation exerts an indirect impact on digital readiness and academic engagement through the moderation of technology self-efficacy; in particular, the high level of self-efficacy strengthens the positive effects of motivation. This basically emphasizes the confidence in technology usage as a fundamental dimension to the effectiveness of online learning. Hence, based on these findings it can be concluded that increasing online English learning motivation, readiness for digital learning environments and academic engagement as well as the technology self-efficacy is important in order to achieve the greatest learning success in the field of online English learning. Although the study has its drawbacks like the use of self-reported data and cross-sectional research design, the study present implications that would be useful to educators and policymakers in the improvement of the online education strategies. The next steps in the research should involve following up the participants over a long period and using both qualitative and quantitative methods to augment these results.

Technology-enhanced mindfulness-based collaborative social reasoning to improve adolescents' social-emotional competencies

This study reports the preliminary efficacy of an innovative school-based, technology-enhanced social-emotional learning program called "mindfulness-based collaborative social reasoning" (MBCSR) for middle school students. MBCSR was developed by an interdisciplinary team of educational psychologists, mindfulness researchers, computer scientists, and health experts. We integrated the strengths of contemplative approaches, collaborative small group discussions, learning technology, and multidimensional assessments of students' social-emotional outcomes. Using a quasi-experimental design, the study was implemented in four sixth-grade English language arts classrooms (2 experimental and 2 business-as-usual control; N = 74) in a public middle school in the Midwest of the United States. It was co-implemented by researchers and teachers, with sessions occurring for 45 minutes, once per week, for 8 weeks. The MBCSR group showed greater self-efficacy for using Upa-yoga and mindful breathing to regulate their emotions and behaviors (η p 2  = .13), and lower externalizing (η p 2  = .07) and bullying behaviors (η p 2  = .09) at the posttest compared to the control group, after controlling for baseline differences. Students in the experimental group overall showed positive and relaxed emotional and physiological states during the sessions. There were no significant differences between the two groups in mindfulness, emotional regulation, and social skills. This program sets an example for integrating social-emotional learning and academic learning into students' daily content instruction.

Hukou-based Discrimination and Migrant Adolescents' Adaptation: Migrant Pattern Differences among the Buffering Role of School Engagement

While the detrimental consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination for adolescent adaptation are well established, little is known about the long-term impact of hukou-based discrimination from the hukou (household registration) system and the potential protective benefits of adolescents' internal capabilities; furthermore, there have been even fewer studies examining potential migrant pattern differences in the association. The current study addressed these gaps by investigating the longitudinal associations between hukou-based discrimination and migrant adolescents' adaptation outcomes (cognitive ability, depressive symptoms, and behavioral problems), as well as whether school engagement moderated these pathways, and whether this function varied by adolescents' migrant patterns. The data were obtained from 1226 migrant adolescents (51.31% male; 51.47% urban migrants, 48.53% rural migrants) aged 12 to 16 years (Mage = 13.56, SD = 0.69 at Wave 1) from the China Education Panel Survey in two waves separated by twelve months. Multilevel modeling revealed that hukou-based discrimination from peers and teachers was negatively related to cognitive abilities, but positively related to depressive symptoms and behavioral problems. School engagement served not only as a facilitator of adaptation but also as a protective factor against hukou-based discrimination. The moderating effect of school engagement was more pronounced in urban migrants than in rural migrants. The current study's findings highlight the role of hukou-based discrimination in adaptation disparities and shed light on the importance of internal capabilities in protecting migrant adolescents with different migration patterns from the detrimental impacts of discrimination on the adaptation process.

A comparison between problem-based conventional learning and creative problem-based learning on self-regulation skills: Experimental study

Currently, the problem-based learning (PBL) method is a research trend used to improve students' self-regulation skills. This study highlights two methods derived from the PBL method, which applies the PBCL method (problem-based conventional learning) and the CPBL method (creative problem-based learning). Previous research stated that applying the PBCL and CPBL methods is often used to increase students' self-regulation skills; however, no study has compared the two methods to identify a more effective method for maximizing students' self-regulation skills. This study aims to compare students' self-regulation skills between applying PBCL and CPBL. Quasi-experimental methods were used in this experimental research. The research design was a posttest-only control group design. The population was 79 secondary school students in Probolinggo, Indonesia. A mathematics post-test and self-regulation skills questionnaire were the techniques used during data collection. An independent T-test and determination test were used during the data analysis. The results showed a significant difference between students' self-regulation skills in applying the CPBL and PBCL methods (Sig. = 0.000 < 0.05). The CPBL method is more effective than the PBCL method in improving students' self-regulation skills. Educators can use the implications of the results of this study to apply the CPBL method in their lesson plans to maximize students' self-regulation skills.

Theories of Motivation in Education: an Integrative Framework

Several major theories have been established in research on motivation in education to describe, explain, and predict the direction, initiation, intensity, and persistence of learning behaviors. The most commonly cited theories of academic motivation include expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, self-determination theory, interest theory, achievement goal theory, and attribution theory. To gain a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences among these prominent theories, we present an integrative framework based on an action model (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). The basic model is deliberately parsimonious, consisting of six stages of action: the situation, the self, the goal, the action, the outcome, and the consequences. Motivational constructs from each major theory are related to these determinants in the course of action, mainly revealing differences and to a lesser extent commonalities. In the integrative model, learning outcomes represent a typical indicator of goal-directed behavior. Associated recent meta-analyses demonstrate the empirical relationship between the motivational constructs of the six central theories and academic achievement. They provide evidence for the explanatory value of each theory for students’ learning.

Beyond All Splits: Envisioning the Next Generation of Science on Mindfulness and Compassion in Schools for Students

Objectives

This paper describes the emergence of the scientific study of mindfulness in schools; summarizes findings of experimental research on the impacts of school-based mindfulness programs (SBMPs) on student outcomes in prekindergarten, primary, and secondary school settings (ages 4-18 years); discusses scientific limitations and wider critiques of this work; and offers suggestions for future research.

Methods

Public data are used to describe the emergence of science on SBMPs, the foci of this research, and the academic disciplines contributing to it. A narrative summary of scientific findings regarding the impacts of SBMPs on students, and critiques of this work, is also presented.

Results

Research is increasing and is primarily psychological and prevention-oriented. Evidence shows SBMPs can enhance students' self-regulation abilities, but SBMPs' impacts on other student outcomes at different ages are equivocal. The current research has significant limitations, and these, alongside wider critiques of the work, suggest important directions for research.

Conclusions

In the next generation of science, we suggest (a) improving the experimental research; (b) expanding developmental research; and (c) re-envisioning assumptions, theories, and methods in research to go "beyond all splits" towards a non-dualistic and relationally, culturally, contextually, ethically, and developmentally grounded science on mindfulness and compassion for students in schools.

Mindfulness in the focus of the neurosciences - The contribution of neuroimaging to the understanding of mindfulness

BACKGROUND

Mindfulness affects human levels of experience by facilitating the immediate and impartial perception of phenomena, including sensory stimulation, emotions, and thoughts. Mindfulness is now a focus of neuroimaging, since technical and methodological developments in magnetic resonance imaging have made it possible to observe subjects performing mindfulness tasks.

OBJECTIVE

We set out to describe the association between mental processes and characteristics of mindfulness, including their specific cerebral patterns, as shown in structural and functional neuroimaging studies.

METHODS

We searched the MEDLINE databank of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics via PubMed using the keywords: "mindfulness," "focused attention (FA)," "open monitoring (OM)," "mind wandering," "emotional regulation," "magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)" and "default mode network (DMN)." This review extracted phenomenological experiences across populations with varying degrees of mindfulness training and correlated these experiences with structural and functional neuroimaging patterns. Our goal was to describe how mindful behavior was processed by the constituents of the default mode network during specific tasks.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Depending on the research paradigm employed to explore mindfulness, investigations of function that used fMRI exhibited distinct activation patterns and functional connectivities. Basic to mindfulness is a long-term process of learning to use meditation techniques. Meditators progress from voluntary control of emotions and subjective preferences to emotional regulation and impartial awareness of phenomena. As their ability to monitor perception and behavior, a metacognitive skill, improves, mindfulness increases self-specifying thoughts governed by the experiential phenomenological self and reduces self-relational thoughts of the narrative self. The degree of mindfulness (ratio of self-specifying to self-relational thoughts) may affect other mental processes, e.g., awareness, working memory, mind wandering and belief formation. Mindfulness prevents habituation and the constant assumptions associated with mindlessness. Self-specifying thinking during mindfulness and self-relational thinking in the narrative self relies on the default mode network. The main constituents of this network are the dorsal and medial prefrontal cortex, and posterior cingulate cortex. These midline structures are antagonistic to self-specifying and self-relational processes, since the predominant process determines their differential involvement. Functional and brain volume changes indicate brain plasticity, mediated by mental training over the long-term.

Know thyself: Development and validation of self-awareness of teaching skills (SATS) measuring instrument for medical teachers

BACKGROUND

Self-awareness is measured previously in the higher education however not specifically in relation to 'effectiveness of teaching' thus leaving a gap in the literature.

AIM

To develop and validate an instrument for medical teachers to measure the self-awareness of their teaching.

METHODS

This was an instrument development multiphase mixed-method study design, based on Brookfield's four lenses theory. The instrument was validated after administering content validity, cognitive pretesting, confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis. Contrasting groups' method of standard setting was used to determine the cut-off scores for the levels of self-awareness of medical teachers.

RESULTS

A 26-item preliminary draft instrument was reduced to a 19-item final instrument having four themes, that is; self-reflection, communication with students, student feedback, and peer review. Content Validity Scale was 0.92. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a model with a good-to-excellent fit and an internal consistency of 0.85. The cut-off values were calculated to be 79%, 70%, 59%, and 53% for excellent, good, average and poor self-awareness of teaching skills respectively.

CONCLUSION

The Self-awareness of the teaching skills instrument has excellent validity and good reliability in measuring the self-awareness of teaching skills of medical teachers.

A Yoga Intervention for Young Children: Self-Regulation and Emotion Regulation

Yoga-based interventions have been implemented in schools and demonstrated promising results on students' self-regulation outcomes. Nevertheless, there is limited literature on the effects that yoga may have for children in the early primary grades, despite the evidence demonstrating that this is an opportune period in development for early self-regulation. Few studies have focused on young children living in the context of economic difficulty, which can hinder children's development of self-regulatory skills and educational trajectories. The effects of an eight-week yoga intervention on economically disadvantaged pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children's self-regulation and emotion regulation were examined via a paired within-subjects comparison study. Nine classrooms were assigned to the yoga intervention (Treatment First, TxFirst; n = 90) or a wait-list control group (Treatment Second, TxSecond; n = 64). All children were assessed at pre-intervention (Time 1), post-intervention assessment for TxFirst (Time 2), and post-intervention assessment for TxSecond (Time 3). Children demonstrated significant predicted gains on a behavioral task of self-regulation and declines in teacher-rated submissive venting and total behavior problems. Implications for future research are discussed, with a focus on including follow-up assessments and multiple dimensions of fidelity of implementation.

Design of a Pedagogical Model of Education for Environmental Citizenship in Primary Education

Education for Environmental Citizenship plays an important role in social change toward sustainable development, achieving economic, social, and environmental balance through informed, cooperative, and participative citizens. There are several pedagogical models with the potential to involve students in environmental activities, but no specific model suitable for primary education is found. This article describes the preliminary investigation phase of a Design-Based Research that resulted in the development of the first prototype of a Pedagogical Model of Education for Environmental Citizenship in Primary Education (students aged 6 to 10 years), in Portugal. This preliminary investigation phase was based on a systematic analysis and literature review on the topic (thesis, articles, projects, and curricular guidelines for primary education), seeking to answer the following research questions: (1) According to the current world characteristics, which learning outcomes should an environmental citizen achieve, and which of them can be promoted in primary education? (2) What are the most appropriate teaching methodologies and strategies for promoting environmental citizen learning outcomes in primary education? The methodology used is presented, and the proposed prototype is described, along with the desired learning outcomes that are considered necessary for the formation of an Environmental Citizen and the most appropriate methodologies and educational activities to promote them.

Social Processes Informing Toileting Behavior Among Adolescent and Adult Women: Social Cognitive Theory as an Interpretative Lens

Little is known about social processes shaping adolescent and adult women's toileting behaviors. The "Study of Habits, Attitudes, Realities, and Experiences" (SHARE) examines adolescent and adult women's experiences related to bladder health across the life course. Forty-four focus groups with 360 participants organized by six age groups were conducted across seven sites. A transdisciplinary team used social cognitive theory as an interpretive lens across a five-stage analysis. The act of observing was identified as the overarching social process informing women's toileting behaviors in three ways: (a) observing others' toileting behavior, (b) being aware that one's own toileting behaviors are monitored by others, and (c) observing oneself relative to others. We found that underlying processes of toileting behaviors, seemingly private are, in fact, highly social. We suggest, given this social embeddedness that health promotion efforts should leverage interpersonal networks for "social norming" interventions and policies to promote healthy toileting behaviors.

IMPROVING THE SELF-AWARENESS CAPACITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS BY FORMING A SCHOOL COUNSELING MODEL BASED ON STUDENT CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT ORIENTATION IN VIETNAM

The self-awareness capacity has long been no stranger in the foreign education, but in Vietnam, self-awareness capacity has only been developed in education in recent years. The self-awareness capacity related problems among Vietnamese students have been exacerbated such as gender-based violence, gender bias, wrong career choices, disorientation and school counseling activities currently could not support this difficulty for students. Based on the theoretical framework of self-awareness capacity from previous studies in Vietnam and further developing the aspects of self-awareness by age, the questionnaire had been done to survey of 726 lower-secondary school students and 474 upper-secondary school students to find the situation of their self-awareness capacity problems, as well as the need for self-awareness capacity problems counseling. The results demonstrated a positive correlation between self-awareness capacity problems and students’ need for self-awareness capacity problems counseling. In addition, identifying self-awareness capacity problems encountered by students helps us to develop a new school counseling model, as well as a process to counsel self-awareness capacity problems for students to enhance the self-awareness capacity and support school counseling activities effectively, also meeting the requirements of renewing the general curriculum in the students’ capacity development orientation in Vietnam. Keywords: self-awareness, self-awareness capacity, school counseling model, school counseling activities, student capacity development orientation.

Know Your Preferences: Self-Regulation as Need-Congruent Goal Selection

Theory and research on self-regulation is dominated by a social–cognitive perspective that places an emphasis on postdecisional (i.e., volitional) control processes of goal-maintenance in response to dual-motive conflict. In the current contribution, we focus on research on self-regulation that acknowledges the affective fundamentals of motivated action, and we highlight processes of goal selection as vital parts of self-regulation. From our perspective of motivational competence, affective and cognitive processes work together rather than oppose each other in self-regulation, rendering effortless rather than effortful goal pursuit as the hallmark of efficient human action. A precondition for such motive- and self-congruent goal pursuits is that individuals have insight into their basic preferences and (can) act accordingly. Therefore, we address capacities, such as mindfulness, which may take effect in predecisional (i.e., motivational) action phases, thereby determining all subsequent action processes.

Developing leadership potential in graduate students with assessment, self-awareness, reflection and coaching

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to present an innovative, research-based approach for stimulating self-awareness, reflection and intentional leadership development and address a call from the academic and business community to educate and prepare graduate students for leadership in contemporary complex workplaces. Building on previous research findings and recommendations, the authors suggest that leadership potential is understood and facilitated through leadership assessment, increased self-awareness and faculty coach-supported reflection and development planning by MBA students. Based on three key constructs in leadership development, a conceptual model depicts the approach to developing potential leaders at this juncture in their professional development.

Design/methodology/approach

New MBA students completed a leadership potential assessment instrument designed to target areas for focused leadership development throughout their MBA program and beyond. The assessment process is followed by faculty coach-supported reflection and development planning as an assignment during the students’ MBA orientation course. To explore the impact of this innovative approach to accelerating the development of leadership potential, reflection papers from students who completed the process were analyzed. Data analysis consisted of content coding with an inter-rater reliability of 0.99 to classify the responses into four key categories. Survey data were also collected from 504 MBA students who attended an on-campus orientation course to measure students’ increasing understanding and awareness of the value of the leadership development opportunity.

Findings

Quantitative and qualitative results provide initial support for this approach to developing leadership potential. Results suggest that the integrative model stimulates a process of awareness, reflection and intentional development, and supports the identification and pursuit of goal-directed learning opportunities throughout students’ MBA program.

Originality/value

Graduate business school students are at a leadership inflection point in their trajectory as leaders. Business colleges play a key role in closing the leadership gap during the development cycle of the students’ MBA program. The innovative approach in this paper, which facilitates self-awareness, reflection and intentional leadership development, offers a model for business colleges exploring how to foster these necessary leadership insights and capabilities.

Mindfulness training for adolescents: A neurodevelopmental perspective on investigating modifications in attention and emotion regulation using event-related brain potentials

Mindfulness training is increasingly being introduced in schools, yet studies examining its impact on the developing brain have been scarce. A neurodevelopmental perspective on mindfulness has been advocated as a powerful tool to enhance our understanding of underlying neurocognitive changes that have implications for developmental well-being research and the implementation of mindfulness in education. To stimulate more research in the developmental cognitive neuroscience of mindfulness, this article outlines possible indexes of mindfulness-based change in adolescence, with a focus on event-related brain potential (ERP) markers. We provide methodological recommendations for future studies and offer examples of research paradigms. We also discuss how mindfulness practice could impact on the development of prefrontal brain structures and enhance attention control and emotion regulation skills in adolescents, impacting in turn on their self-regulation and coping skills. We highlight advantages of the ERP methodology in neurodevelopmental research of mindfulness. It is proposed that research using established experimental tasks targeting ERP components such as the contingent negative variability, N200, error-related negativity and error positivity, P300, and late positive potential could elucidate developmentally salient shifts in the neural plasticity of the adolescent brain induced by mindfulness practice.

Integrating Contemplative Tools into Biomedical Science Education and Research Training Programs

Academic preparation of science researchers and/or human or veterinary medicine clinicians through the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curriculum has usually focused on the students (1) acquiring increased disciplinary expertise, (2) learning needed methodologies and protocols, and (3) expanding their capacity for intense, persistent focus. Such educational training is effective until roadblocks or problems arise via this highly-learned approach. Then, the health science trainee may have few tools available for effective problem solving. Training to achieve flexibility, adaptability, and broadened perspectives using contemplative practices has been rare among biomedical education programs. To address this gap, a Cornell University-based program involving formal biomedical science coursework, and health science workshops has been developed to offer science students, researchers and health professionals a broader array of personal, contemplation-based, problem-solving tools. This STEM educational initiative includes first-person exercises designed to broaden perceptional awareness, decrease emotional drama, and mobilize whole-body strategies for creative problem solving. Self-calibration and journaling are used for students to evaluate the personal utility of each exercise. The educational goals are to increase student self-awareness and self-regulation and to provide trainees with value-added tools for career-long problem solving. Basic elements of this educational initiative are discussed using the framework of the Tree of Contemplative Practices.

Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): a framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness

Mindfulness-as a state, trait, process, type of meditation, and intervention has proven to be beneficial across a diverse group of psychological disorders as well as for general stress reduction. Yet, there remains a lack of clarity in the operationalization of this construct, and underlying mechanisms. Here, we provide an integrative theoretical framework and systems-based neurobiological model that explains the mechanisms by which mindfulness reduces biases related to self-processing and creates a sustainable healthy mind. Mindfulness is described through systematic mental training that develops meta-awareness (self-awareness), an ability to effectively modulate one's behavior (self-regulation), and a positive relationship between self and other that transcends self-focused needs and increases prosocial characteristics (self-transcendence). This framework of self-awareness, -regulation, and -transcendence (S-ART) illustrates a method for becoming aware of the conditions that cause (and remove) distortions or biases. The development of S-ART through meditation is proposed to modulate self-specifying and narrative self-networks through an integrative fronto-parietal control network. Relevant perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral neuropsychological processes are highlighted as supporting mechanisms for S-ART, including intention and motivation, attention regulation, emotion regulation, extinction and reconsolidation, prosociality, non-attachment, and decentering. The S-ART framework and neurobiological model is based on our growing understanding of the mechanisms for neurocognition, empirical literature, and through dismantling the specific meditation practices thought to cultivate mindfulness. The proposed framework will inform future research in the contemplative sciences and target specific areas for development in the treatment of psychological disorders.

Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): a framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness

Mindfulness—as a state, trait, process, type of meditation, and intervention has proven to be beneficial across a diverse group of psychological disorders as well as for general stress reduction. Yet, there remains a lack of clarity in the operationalization of this construct, and underlying mechanisms. Here, we provide an integrative theoretical framework and systems-based neurobiological model that explains the mechanisms by which mindfulness reduces biases related to self-processing and creates a sustainable healthy mind. Mindfulness is described through systematic mental training that develops meta-awareness (self-awareness), an ability to effectively modulate one's behavior (self-regulation), and a positive relationship between self and other that transcends self-focused needs and increases prosocial characteristics (self-transcendence). This framework of self-awareness, -regulation, and -transcendence (S-ART) illustrates a method for becoming aware of the conditions that cause (and remove) distortions or biases. The development of S-ART through meditation is proposed to modulate self-specifying and narrative self-networks through an integrative fronto-parietal control network. Relevant perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral neuropsychological processes are highlighted as supporting mechanisms for S-ART, including intention and motivation, attention regulation, emotion regulation, extinction and reconsolidation, prosociality, non-attachment, and decentering. The S-ART framework and neurobiological model is based on our growing understanding of the mechanisms for neurocognition, empirical literature, and through dismantling the specific meditation practices thought to cultivate mindfulness. The proposed framework will inform future research in the contemplative sciences and target specific areas for development in the treatment of psychological disorders.

Contemplative Practices and Mental Training: Prospects for American Education

Drawing upon research in neuroscience, cognitive science, developmental psychology and education, as well as scholarship from contemplative traditions concerning the cultivation of positive development, we highlight a set of mental skills and socio-emotional dispositions that we believe are central to the aims of education in the 21(st) century. These include self-regulatory skills associated with emotion and attention, self-representations, and prosocial dispositions such as empathy and compassion. These positive qualities and dispositions can be strengthened through systematic contemplative practice. Such practice induces plastic changes in brain function and structure, supporting prosocial behavior and academic success in young people. These putative beneficial consequences call for focused programmatic research to better characterize which forms and frequencies of practice are most efficacious for which types of children and adolescents. Results from such research may help refine training programs to maximize their effectiveness at different ages and to document the changes in neural function and structure that might be induced.