Specificity of non-structural protein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the detection of serum antibodies against foot-and-mouth disease virus in a target population in New Zealand

Development of a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies against the 3B protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most highly contagious and economically devastating diseases, and it severely constrains the international trade of animals. Vaccination against FMD is a key element in the control of FMD. However, vaccination of susceptible animals raises critical issues, such as the differentiation of infected animals from vaccinated animals. The current study developed a reliable and rapid test to detect antibodies against the conserved, nonstructural proteins (NSPs) of the FMD virus (FMDV) to distinguish infected animals from vaccinated animals. A monoclonal antibody (MAb) against the FMDV NSP 3B was produced. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) for FMDV/NSP antibody detection was developed using a recombinant 3ABC protein as the antigen and the 3B-specific MAb. Sera collected from naive, FMDV experimentally infected, vaccinated carrier, and noncarrier animals were tested using the 3B cELISA. The diagnostic specificity was 99.4% for naive animals (cattle, pigs, and sheep) and 99.7% for vaccinated noncarrier animals. The diagnostic sensitivity was 100% for experimentally inoculated animals and 64% for vaccinated carrier animals. The performance of this 3B cELISA was compared to that of four commercial ELISA kits using a panel of serum samples established by the World Reference Laboratory for FMD at The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom. The diagnostic sensitivity of the 3B cELISA for the panel of FMDV/NSP-positive bovine serum samples was 94%, which was comparable to or better than that of the commercially available NSP antibody detection kits. This 3B cELISA is a simple, reliable test to detect antibodies against FMDV nonstructural proteins.

A Review of OIE Country Status Recovery Using Vaccinate-to-Live Versus Vaccinate-to-Die Foot-and-Mouth Disease Response Policies I: Benefits of Higher Potency Vaccines and Associated NSP DIVA Test Systems in Post-Outbreak Surveillance

To rapidly return to trade, countries with OIE status, FMD-free country where vaccination is not practised, have destroyed emergency vaccinated animals, raising ethical concerns with respect to social values, the environment, animal welfare and global food security. This two-part review explores whether science could support eligibility to return to previous OIE status in 3 months irrespective of vaccinate-to-live or vaccinate-to-die policies. Here, we examine the benefits of higher potency (≥ 6 PD50 ), high-purity vaccines formulated from antigen banks for emergency use, their efficacy and performance in differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) assays for post-outbreak surveillance. From an intensive programme of research, we conclude that high-quality, higher potency vaccines are proven to reduce FMD virus (FMDV) subclinical circulation and the risk of carriers. Broader coverage than predicted by serology suggests the potential to hold a few 'key' vaccine strains improving logistics and reducing the financial burden of antigen banks. The OIE should adopt formal definitions for emergency vaccination and emergency vaccines. In terms of supportive tools, we consider that the lack of OIE recognition of DIVA tests other than those of PANAFTOSA in cattle is a shortcoming. There is need for research on maternal antibody interference with DIVA tests and on the use of such tests to establish whether greater purification of vaccines improves performance. We consider that alignment of waiting periods for vaccinate-to-live and vaccinate-to-die in OIE Code Article 8.5.9 1 b. and c. is feasible until an acceptable level of statistical certainty for surveillance or target probability of freedom is established to substantiate the absence of FMDV infection or circulation. It is surveillance intensity rather than waiting periods that establishes the risk of residual FMDV. EU Directive 2003/85/EC implicitly recognizes this, permitting derogation of the OIE waiting periods.

Serological and clinical surveillance studies to validate reported foot-and-mouth disease free status in Tsirang district of Bhutan

Serological and clinical studies were conducted between March 2009 and August 2010 to validate the foot-and-mouth disease free status of Tsirang district of Bhutan as determined by the country's passive surveillance system. Randomised (first survey) and targeted (third survey) samplings, with subsequent follow-up samplings (second and fourth), were conducted on FMD-susceptible animals to detect the disease at a design prevalence of 25% and 20% at the individual animal-level and village-level, respectively. Sera from cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep were tested for the presence of non-structural protein (NSP) antibodies using two commercial (PrioCHECK(®) FMDV NS and CHEKIT(®)-FMD-3ABC-bo-ov) and one in-house NSP kit (c-ELISA, AAHL, Australia). The overall seropositivity (all species) at the animal-level was 3% (95% CI: 1.7, 4.8) and 3.5% (95% CI: 2.1, 5.4), for the randomised and targeted surveys, respectively. Except for one goat from the first survey, none of the small ruminants and pigs had NSP antibodies. The seropositives from the first and targeted surveys were distributed among 13 and 16 of 20 villages sampled, respectively. All repeat testing from the initial seropositive animals and their herd mates, for both the first and third surveys, were negative in the NSP tests 6-8 months later. Using the hypergeometric exact probability formula for two-stage analyses, the results enabled rejection of the null hypothesis and supported conclusion that the population was free from disease at the minimum expected prevalence of 20% at the 95.53% and 99.46% confidence levels, for the randomised and targeted surveys, respectively. Clinical surveillance also showed absence of disease or clinical signs suggestive of FMD. The few seropositives were likely to be false positives due to factors such as imperfect specificities of the tests and possible NSP-residues in the vaccines. The study has paved the way for initiation of zoning approaches for the progressive control of FMD in Bhutan.