The impact of self-as-a-model interventions on children's self-regulation of learning and swimming performance

Effect of self-modeling and self-controlled feedback on the performance of professional swimmers and waterpolo players

Self-modeling (SM) and self-control (SC) feedback can be presented as two solutions for learning improvement. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of SM and SC feedback on 100-m freestyle performance of professional swimmers and waterpolo players. 25 elite male swimmers and waterpolo players, were randomly assigned to four groups: swimmer group with SM, swimmer group with SM and SC feedback, waterpolo players group with SM, and waterpolo players group with SM and SC feedback. 100-m freestyle times and performance were recorded. SM and SC feedback for the participants were utilized at the acquisition stage. The device used included a Lenovo B570 laptop and an Exilim ZR200 canon camcorder. SM and SC feedback presented to the swimmers and waterpolo players led to improved speed and results, and the effect of presenting SM with SC feedback to swimmers had better results. In conclusion, the present study indicates that SC modeling of watching video is a suitable method for professional swimmers. Water polo trainers can also use SM and SC feedback to enhance their players' swimming technique.

Models of Video Feedback for Youth Athletes Performing an American Football Tackle

CONTEXT

Video feedback is an expeditious method for improving athlete safety when performing activities with an inherent risk of injury. Providing appropriate and validated feedback during tackling training in American football may be a mechanism for athletes to learn safe tackling performance.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of video feedback in the instruction of tackling form.

DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

SETTING

Laboratory.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 32 youth football athletes (28 boys, 4 girls; age = 11.8 ± 0.8 years) participated in 1 day of training. Of those, 14 participants completed 2 additional days of training and a 48-hour retention and transfer test.

INTERVENTION(S)

Video feedback using self as model, expert as model, combined self and expert model, and oral feedback to promote safe tackling performance in a laboratory environment.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Shoulder extension, cervical extension, trunk angle, pelvis height, and step length by training block and over time.

RESULTS

For the 1-day training group, main effects for time were observed for shoulder extension (P < .01), cervical extension (P = .01), pelvis height (P < .01), and step length (P < .01), with better performance for pelvis height and step length after combined feedback. For the 3-day training group, main effects of time were identified in pelvis height (P < .01) and step length (P < .01), with combined feedback showing better performance than other methods in shoulder extension and pelvis height. Combined feedback resulted in better performance compared with its component parts and oral feedback alone. In the combined model, participants viewed both their performance and the expert model, enabling them to see the difference between current and required performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Combined feedback may be superior to other forms of feedback in improving movement performance. This effect can be generalized across disciplines that provide instruction and feedback in movement.

Effects of Different Observational Angles in Learner-Chosen Video Self-Modeling on Task Acquisition and Retention

This study aimed to examine the influence of different observational angles in video self-modeling on task acquisition and retention. We randomly assigned 42 Japanese university students to three camera-angle groups, i.e., a front-angle, a rear-angle, and a control group. The participants performed a 3 × 6 × 3 cup-stacking task with three sequential laps. The front- and rear-angle groups viewed video self-modeling created from previously self-chosen videos. The retention phase was conducted 1 week after the acquisition phase. The rear-angle group demonstrated the fastest movement times in the acquisition phase. Our findings indicate that viewing learner-chosen video self-modeling from a rear angle enhances motor skill acquisition but does not contribute to motor skill learning.

Functional Outcomes of Motor Learning Interventions in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries

Anterior cruciate ligament injury is one of the pathologies that affect the daily and professional life of the majority of athletes. When the treatment options are examined, there are two options surgical treatment and conservative treatment. Rehabilitation is essential in both cases, with or without surgery. Especially for returning to sports, long-term rehabilitation after surgery has become essential. While many different exercise methods have been tried in the prevention of anterior cruciate ligament injury and rehabilitation after reconstructive surgery, many have focused on strength training. The abnormal movement pattern that occurs with the somatosensory loss seen after anterior cruciate ligament injury results in a functional loss in the injured extremity and the contralateral extremity in the long term. Considering the incidence of injury, studies to establish the normal movement pattern and restore motor control are very important. For this reason, motor learning-based interventions that support neuroplasticity are of great interest today. This review aims to examine the functional results of current motor learning-based interventions in anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation in line with the literature.

Use of Observational Learning to Promote Motor Skill Learning in Physical Education: A Systematic Review

Observational learning is an effective pedagogical approach that can influence students' motor skill development at every level of physical education (PE). This study aimed to systematically summarize the evidence on observational learning for motor skill learning in PE and to generalize the evidence on the effect of model formats and verbal cues during observational learning. An electronic search of eight databases was conducted. Eighteen studies were included and their methodological quality was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database Scale. Best evidence synthesis (BES) was used to assess levels of evidence. Strong evidence supported the effect of observational learning on students' motor skill learning compared to students who did not participate in observational learning. Moderate evidence suggested that there is no significant difference in the effectiveness of observing an expert model compared to a self-model. Conflicting evidence was identified for the effect of the presence of verbal cues compared to the absence of verbal cues during observational learning. The results suggest that observational learning is useful for students' motor skill learning in PE. Given the influences of potential factors, we recommend that future studies investigate how observational learning interacts with verbal cues on students' motor skill learning.

Video-based visual feedback to enhance motor learning in physical education—a systematic review

While studies have indicated that visual feedback promotes skill acquisition and motor learning in controlled settings and for various sports, less is known about its feasibility in physical education, which has specific needs and conditions. For this reason, a systematic literature review was conducted regarding video-based visual feedback in physical education. Out of 2030 initially examined studies, 11 matched the selection and quality criteria. The goal was to determine whether visual feedback can be effective regarding motor learning in physical education in primary and secondary schools, and to investigate whether different visual feedback variants (expert modeling and self-modeling), supported by verbal feedback, are more effective than verbal feedback alone. Subsequently, the different conditions (e.g., age, group size, duration) of the included studies were evaluated for their suitability for everyday applications. Video-based visual feedback seems to be effective to enhance motor learning in physical education and seems to be more effective than solely verbal feedback. However, the results show that the specific conditions (class size, scheduled lessons, available time, technical equipment, the digital literacy of teachers, and data protection) of a school environment must be considered before implementing visual video feedback in daily practice.

Easy Task and Choice: Motivational Interventions Facilitate Motor Skill Learning in Children

Expectancies for success and autonomy support have been shown to facilitate motor learning and enhance motor performance. The purpose of the study was to examine whether we replicated (a) enhanced expectancies and autonomy support intervention enhanced motor skill learning in children, and (b) identified the underlying psychological mechanism. Sixty children kicked soccer balls with their dominant leg to a squared area target. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four groups: enhanced expectancies and autonomy support (EE/AS), enhanced expectancies (EE), autonomy support (AS), or control (CON) groups. Participants learning the skill were or were not provided enhanced expectation instructions by making the task success easier and provided an opportunity to choose one of the three colored balls during their practice. Two days later, they performed retention and transfer tests. Results indicated that the EE/AS group had the highest scores, with main effects of autonomy support being significant and enhanced expectancies being marginally significant for the retention test and significant for the transfer test. The EE/AS group had the highest self-efficacy and perceived choice scores. Therefore, having high expectancies for success and being autonomous were important ingredients for facilitating motor skill learning in children.

Revisiting the Applied Model for the Use of Observation: A Review of Articles Spanning 2011-2018

Purpose: To provide a review of current articles that have used observation interventions to enhance motor skill acquisition or performance of applied tasks, and to situate the research within the Applied Model for the Use of Observation (AMUO) with the goal of forming a basis for evidence-based guidelines for practitioners. Method: Key words (e.g., observation/modeling) were searched in varied data bases (e.g., Google Scholar/PubMed), along with a citation search of the relevant AMUO article, to generate a pool of articles for possible review. Selection criteria included publication between 2011 and 2018, and that the research focus was on the effects of an observation intervention on the acquisition or performance of an applied motor task. Results: Forty-eight articles were reviewed, with 21 of these targeting the basic question of whether observation is effective, and the remaining pertaining to the What, When, Who, and How features of the AMUO. The effectiveness of observation interventions was not only affirmed, but also extended to a wider scope of populations and settings. Greater insight into the necessary information with respect to the demonstration (what) and whether it should be before, after, or during physical practice (when) was obtained. As well, advantages of combining model types (who) and providing control to the learner (how) were reported. Conclusions: While more clarity was brought to certain features of the AMUO that could be used to provide evidence-based guidelines, more research is needed to fully inform practitioners for the effective use of observation interventions.

THE EFFECTS OF VIDEO MODELING AND SIMULATION ON TEACHING / LEARNING BASIC VAULTING JUMP ON THE VAULT TABLE

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of different teaching / learning strategies (i.e., verbal feedback, video feedback with modeling, and video feedback with simulation) on performing basic vaulting skills on the vault table. Three male groups of undergraduate students in physical education (i.e., 135 students, divided into 3 groups of 45 subjects) took part in this study. The groups (i.e., traditional, modeling and simulation groups) were divided on equal terms; students are not gymnasts, have the same level and taught by the same teacher. All participants were pretested to determine initial skill level (i.e., direct piked vault). This study covers 24 stoop direct vault sessions, 21 learning and three evaluations spread over 12 weeks (i.e., 2 sessions per week). A video motion analysis (i.e., using Kinovea software) was used to evaluate direct piked vault skills/performance. The results indicate a better improvement of performance in the modeling group compared to the simulation and traditional groups (vault score, 11.80±1.22 pts, 10.85±1.50 pts and 9.01±1.30 pts, respectively with p<0.01). In addition, the analysis of delta-percentage revealed a considerable enhancements of technical performance in the modeling group (46.93%) compared to simulation (27.62%) and traditional (21.64%) groups. In conclusion, video feedback with model’s superposition had led to better learning improvements in vault jump compared with simulation and verbal feedback methods. The video return with the overlay of the model enabled a lot of basic skills learning improvement at the vault table.

Sources of self-efficacy for motor learning in children: systematic literature review in clinical trials

Abstract This study aimed to verify the effects of intervention models on the motor activity of children elaborated from the self-efficacy theory. The systematic review of randomized controlled clinical trials with the PRISMA strategy was used. Sixteen studies were descriptively analyzed and revealed that knowledge based on the self-efficacy theory related to motor activity has been more frequently integrated into broad intervention programs in the school environment, collectively applied, stimulating aspects related to children's health and prevention of childhood obesity. Important results were obtained in the development of self-efficacy and motor activity stimulation; however, results are not conclusive regarding the mediation among these variables. Contributions for intervention programs are detailed in this manuscript, allowing the visualization of strategies to build a mastery context, favoring the establishment of an adequate concept of motor self-efficacy in children and the development of self-regulation skills.

Feedforward Self-Modeling and Self-Regulation: It's Not Just for Learning

Purpose: This research investigated whether Zimmerman's model of self-regulated learning could be transferred into a competitive setting. We also investigated whether a feedforward self-modeling video could influence one's use of self-regulation and as such be an effective self-regulatory intervention. Methods: Nine competitive gymnasts took part in two interviews; one interview was conducted after a competition in which the video was viewed (experimental interview: EI) and the other after a competition where no video was seen (control interview: CI). Results: The gymnasts' responses to the interviews suggested that many processes and beliefs used in the learning context described by Zimmerman were also engaged in within a competitive context. Furthermore, comparison of gymnasts' responses between the EI and CI suggested that the feedforward self-modeling video influenced gymnasts' use of self-regulation during a competition. Conclusion: This research suggests that Zimmerman's model of self-regulation has potential to be transmitted into the competitive context and that an individual's self-regulation can be influenced by viewing a feedforward self-modeling video.

Coaches’ and Officials’ Self-Reporting of Observational Learning

Sport participants continually seek methods to hone their skills and achieve expert performance. One means to achieve this is through the use of observational learning (OL). The Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ) was created to measure the types of OL athletes used. The data presented herein builds from prior research in which the use of the FOLQ was extended to coaches and officials. The researchers included the following open-ended question: “Do you observe others/self for anything not addressed above?” Responses to this question, however, have yet to be reported. As such, the purpose of this study was to analyze participants’ responses to understand how coaches and officials use observational learning. Many identified codes encompassed ideas already included within the FOLQ; however, new coding categories emerged. Specifically, coaches reported using observational learning for Self-Reflection, officials reported using observational learning for Self-Presentation, and both groups reported using observational learning to improve Communication. These results demonstrate the importance of OL to coaches’ and officials’ development. Further, the results highlight that the FOLQ might overlook coaches’ and officials’ uses of OL. Regardless, the various uses of OL ought to be included in coaching and officiating education programs to foster elite performance.

Relationships among age, experience, and observational learning of athletes based on types of model observed

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to examine the use of observational learning among athletes when they observed themselves (self-model) or their opponents (opponent-model). Furthermore, there was an emphasis on determining the relationships between age, experience, and the functions (i.e., skill, strategy, performance) of observational learning according to the type of model observed.

METHODS

A total of 158 athletes (male=70, female=88) who competed in different team (N.=83) and individual (N.=75) sports participated in the study. They ranged in age from 17 years to 32 years. Their total years of sport participation ranged from one year to 18 years.

RESULTS

Athletes reported significantly greater use of all three functions of observational learning for the self-model than for the opponent-model. Bivariate correlations revealed years of experience was significantly and positively associated with the skill, self, and performance functions of observational learning for the self-model. In contrast, age was significantly and positively related with the performance function of observational learning for the opponent-model.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding provides the first empirical evidence to suggest that model type influences the use of observational learning in athletes. A positive relationship also exists between experience and self-observational learning as well as age and the opponent-performance function of observational learning. The results contribute to the observational learning literature and provide support to the Applied Model for the Use of Observation.

Temporal-Comparative Feedback Facilitates Golf Putting

The present experiment investigated the influence of temporal-comparative feedback in young adults learning a sport motor skill. A positive temporal-comparative feedback group and a control group practiced putting golf balls to a target from a distance of 150 cm and received augmented feedback (deviation in cm) in addition to their intrinsic visual feedback. The temporal-comparative feedback group was given additional feedback after each block of 10 trials, suggesting that their average performance was better than it was in the previous block. One day after the practice phase a retention test was performed, to observe learning effects. The results showed that positive temporal-comparative feedback enhances the learning of a putting golf task. Greater putting accuracy was observed on the retention test for the temporal comparison group relative to the control group. Questionnaire results also indicated that participants in this group reported higher perceived competence at the end of practice relative to control participants. The findings provide further indication that temporal comparison affects the learning of motor skills and highlight the important motivational role of feedback in motor learning.

The feasibility of a theory-based self-regulation intervention in schools to increase older adolescents' leisure time physical activity behavior

The purpose of this study was to test the feasibility of a theory-based self-regulation intervention to increase older adolescents' leisure time physical activity (LTPA) behavior. Forty-nine adolescents (M = 15.78 years; SD = 0.52; 31% female) from two schools agreed to participate. Participants were randomly assigned to the experimental or control arm at the school level. The experimental group (n = 24) underwent a brief self-regulation intervention for six weeks. The control group (n = 25) continued with standard classes. Intervention fidelity data was collected to assess feasibility. Outcome measures included self-reported LTPA behavior and self-regulation technique use. Intervention sessions were delivered as intended, participant attendance was high and compliance with intervention content was acceptable. The experimental group reported higher levels of LTPA behavior eight weeks post-intervention and increased use of self-regulation techniques. A brief theory-based self-regulation intervention delivered in a school-setting appears feasible and may increase LTPA behavior and self-regulation in adolescents.

Triple play: Additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning

In the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning [Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23, 1382-1414], 3 factors are postulated to facilitate learning: enhanced expectancies (EE) for performance, autonomy support (AS), and an external focus (EF) of attention. In 3 recent studies, combinations of 2 of these variables resulted in superior learning relative to the presence of only 1 variable, or none. We examined whether the combination of all 3 factors would enhance learning relative to combinations of 2 factors. Our design included EE–AS, EE–EF, AS–EF, and AS–EE–EF groups. Participants threw balls at a target with their non-dominant arm. In the EE conditions, they received positive social–comparative feedback. In the AS conditions, they were allowed to throw with their dominant arm on trial blocks chosen by them. In the EF conditions, participants were asked to focus on the target. On a delayed retention test, the AS–EE–EF group outperformed all other groups. The findings provide evidence that enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and an external focus can contribute in an additive fashion to optimize motor learning.

Visual illusions can facilitate sport skill learning

Witt, Linkenauger, and Proffitt (Psychological Science, 23, 397-399, 2012) demonstrated that golf putting performance was enhanced when the hole was surrounded by small circles, making it look larger, relative to when it was surrounded by large circles, making it look smaller. In the present study, we examined whether practicing putting with small or large surrounding circles would have not only immediate effects on performance, but also longer-lasting effects on motor learning. Two groups of nongolfers practiced putting golf balls to a 10.4-cm circle ("hole") from a distance of 2 m. Small or large circles were projected around the hole during the practice phase. Perception of hole size was affected by the size of the surrounding circles. Also, self-efficacy was higher in the group with the perceived larger hole. One day after practice, participants performed the putting task, but without visual illusions (i.e., a retention test). Putting accuracy in retention was greater for the group that had practiced with the perceived larger hole. These findings suggest that the apparently larger target led to the more effective learning outcome.

The effect of learner's control of self-observation strategies on learning of front crawl

This study investigated the effect of learner's control of self-observation strategies on motor skill learning. For this purpose, beginner and intermediate learner swimmers practised the front crawl. Seventy college students took part in this experiment. They comprised 40 novice learners, both male (n=19) and female (n=21), with an average age of 20.7 years (±0.44), and 30 intermediate learners, both male (n=17) and female (n=13), with an average age of 21.1 years (±0.86). The design involved a pretest (one day), four acquisition sessions (four days), and a retention test (one day). They were divided into three groups: (1) choice, which could choose to watch a video with their best or overall performance during practise; (2) yoked, which were paired to those of the choice group; and (3) control (did not watch any video). The measures included the performance of front crawl and self-efficacy. The results showed that: (1) beginners who chose a type of observation strategy had superior motor skill learning; (2) for intermediate learners, self-observation promoted better motor learning, regardless of the control of choices; (3) self-observation improved self-efficacy beliefs.

Validação do Function Observational Learning Questionnaire para o Português - Brasil

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi obter evidências de validade transcultural para a língua portuguesa - Brasil do Function of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ). Participaram do estudo atletas de natação, handebol e voleibol de ambos os sexos (n=362). O alpha de Cronbach e o coeficiente de Kappa foram utilizados para avaliar a consistência interna dos itens. Análise Fatorial Confirmatória foi realizada para verificar a adequabilidade do instrumento ao modelo conceitual. Para avaliar a fidedignidade teste-reteste, utilizou-se o teste t de student, com p < 0,05 para diferenças estatisticamente significativas. Os resultados mostram que foram obtidas evidências de validade para a língua portuguesa com 17 questões, mantendo os três fatores originais: habilidade, desempenho e estratégia.

Impacts of autonomy-supportive versus controlling instructional language on motor learning

The authors examined the influence of autonomy-supportive (ASL), controlling (CL), and neutral instructional language (NL) on motor skill learning (cricket bowling action). Prior to and several times during the practice phase, participants watched the same video demonstration of the bowling action but with different voice-over instructions. The instructions were designed to provide the same technical information but to vary in terms of the degree of choice performers would perceive when executing the task. In addition to measurements of throwing accuracy (i.e., deviation from the target), perceived choice, self-efficacy, and positive and negative affect were assessed at the end of the practice phase and after a retention test without demonstrations and instructions on Day 2. ASL resulted in perceptions of greater choice, higher self-efficacy, and more positive affect during practice than CL, and enhanced learning as demonstrated by retention test performance. Thus, granting learners autonomy appeared to endow them with confidence in their ability, diminished needs for control of negative emotional responses, and created more positive affect, which may help consolidate motor memories.

Effects of generic versus non-generic feedback on motor learning in children

Non-generic feedback refers to a specific event and implies that performance is malleable, while generic feedback implies that task performance reflects an inherent ability. The present study examined the influences of generic versus non-generic feedback on motor performance and learning in 10-year-old children. In the first experiment, using soccer ball kicking at a target as a task, providing participants with generic feedback resulted in worse performance than providing non-generic feedback, after both groups received negative feedback. The second experiment measured more permanent effects. Results of a retention test, performed one day after practicing a throwing task, showed that participants who received non-generic feedback during practice outperformed the generic feedback group, after receiving a negative feedback statement. The findings demonstrate the importance of the wording of feedback. Even though different positive feedback statements may not have an immediate influence on performance, they can affect performance, and presumably individuals' motivation, when performance is (purportedly) poor. Feedback implying that performance is malleable, rather than due to an inherent ability, seems to have the potential to inoculate learners against setbacks – a situation frequently encountered in the context of motor performance and learning.

Using Hypnosis to Enhance Self-Efficacy in Sport Performers

High levels of self-efficacy have been documented to be associated with optimal levels of sport performance. One technique, which has the potential to foster increased self-efficacy, is hypnosis. Hypnosis is based upon the power of suggestion and, while often shrouded in myth and controversy, has been used in a number of domains including medicine, dentistry, and psychotherapy. In contrast, sport psychology is one domain where the use of hypnosis has yet to be fully explored. The aim of this review is to add to the extant literature and delineate how hypnosis potentially can enhance self-efficacy. By drawing on neodissociation and nonstate theories of hypnosis, a combined theoretical basis is established to explain how hypnosis may be used to influence sport performers’ sources of self-efficacy information. Furthermore, the review examines these theoretical postulations by presenting contemporary research evidence exploring the effects of hypnosis on sport performers’ self-efficacy. The review concludes with future research directions and suggestions for sport psychologists considering the use of hypnosis within their practice.

Empirical evaluation of age groups and age-subgroup analyses in pediatric randomized trials and pediatric meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

An important step toward improvement of the conduct of pediatric clinical research is the standardization of the ages of children to be included in pediatric trials and the optimal age-subgroups to be analyzed.

METHODS

We set out to evaluate empirically the age ranges of children, and age-subgroup analyses thereof, reported in recent pediatric randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and meta-analyses. First, we screened 24 RCTs published in Pediatrics during the first 6 months of 2011; second, we screened 188 pediatric RCTs published in 2007 in the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials; third, we screened 48 pediatric meta-analyses published in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews in 2011. We extracted information on age ranges and age-subgroups considered and age-subgroup differences reported.

RESULTS

The age range of children in RCTs published in Pediatrics varied from 0.1 to 17.5 years (median age: 5; interquartile range: 1.8-10.2) and only 25% of those presented age-subgroup analyses. Large variability was also detected for age ranges in 188 RCTs from the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and only 28 of those analyzed age-subgroups. Moreover, only 11 of 48 meta-analyses had age-subgroup analyses, and in 6 of those, only different studies were included. Furthermore, most of these observed differences were not beyond chance.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed large variability in the age ranges and age-subgroups of children included in recent pediatric trials and meta-analyses. Despite the limited available data, some age-subgroup differences were noted. The rationale for the selection of particular age-subgroups deserves further study.

Feedforward self-modeling enhances skill acquisition in children learning trampoline skills

The purpose of this research was to examine whether children would benefit from a feedforward self-modeling (FSM) video and to explore possible explanatory mechanisms for the potential benefits, using a self-regulation framework. To this end, children were involved in learning two five-skill trampoline routines. For one of the routines, a FSM video was provided during acquisition, whereas only verbal instructions were provided for the alternate routine. The FSM involved editing video footage such that it showed the learner performing the trampoline routine at a higher skill level than their current capability. Analyses of the data showed that while physical performance benefits were observed for the routine that was learned with the FSM video, no differences were obtained in relation to the self-regulatory measures. Thus, the FSM video enhanced motor skill acquisition, but this could not be explained by changes to the varied self-regulatory processes examined.

Testing a model of antecedents and consequences of defensive pessimism and self-handicapping in school physical education

There has been very limited research on the use of self-worth protection strategies in the achievement context of school physical education (PE). Thus the aim of the present study was to examine some antecedents and consequences of defensive pessimism and self-handicapping. The sample comprised 534 British pupils (275 females, 259 males) recruited from two schools who responded to established questionnaires. Results of structural equation modelling analysis indicated that self-handicapping and defensive pessimism were positively predicted by fear of failure and negatively predicted by competence valuation. In addition, defensive pessimism was negatively predicted by physical self-concept. In turn, defensive pessimism negatively predicted enjoyment in PE and intentions to participate in future optional PE programmes. Self-handicapping did not predict enjoyment or intentions. Results from multi-sample structural equation modelling showed the specified model to be largely invariant across males and females. The findings indicate that although both strategies aim to protect one's self-worth, some of their antecedents and consequences in PE may differ.

Differences in self-regulatory skills among talented athletes: the significance of competitive level and type of sport

Research has shown that talented athletes outscore their mainstream peers on the basis of self-regulation. Although valuable, this does not tell us more about the distinction between good athletes and the best, which is a prerequisite in talent development. Therefore, we examined the self-regulatory skills of 222 male and female talented athletes aged 12-16 years as a function of competitive sport level (junior international or junior national athletes) and type of sport (individual or team sports). Multivariate analyses of covariance in combination with a discriminant function analysis revealed that "reflection" distinguishes between athletes at the highest levels of excellence. Furthermore, athletes playing individual sports had higher scores on "planning" and "effort" than team sport athletes, highlighting the importance of differences between types of sport. In conclusion, we emphasize the importance of reflection as a self-regulatory skill. Reflection facilitates the development of sport-specific characteristics, which may vary by type of sport. This means that an advanced sense of reflection may help talented athletes to acquire desirable characteristics during their "talent" years to ultimately reach adult elite levels of competition.

An Individualized Behavioral Goal-Setting Program for Coaches

Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) has been shown to have positive effects on a range of outcome variables, especially in young athletes (Smith & Smoll, 2005). Based on CET principles, and coupled with behavioral feedback, an individualized goal-setting intervention was developed and assessed using a replicated case study approach. Outcome variables included observed, athlete-perceived, and coach-perceived behaviors measured before the intervention and late in the season, as well as coaches’ evaluations of the intervention. Four soccer coaches selected three target behaviors that they wished to improve after viewing videotaped behavioral feedback. Behavioral assessment revealed that two of the coaches achieved positive changes on all three of their targeted behaviors. A third coach improved on two of the three targeted behaviors. The fourth coach did not achieve any of the established goals. We conclude that this approach is sufficiently promising to warrant additional research, and we discuss strengths and limitations of the study.