Distribution of theAMPD1C34T polymorphism in Polish power-oriented athletes

Genomic predictors of physical activity and athletic performance

Physical activity and athletic performance are complex phenotypes influenced by environmental and genetic factors. Recent advances in lifestyle and behavioral genomics led to the discovery of dozens of DNA polymorphisms (variants) associated with physical activity and allowed to use them as genetic instruments in Mendelian randomization studies for identifying the causal links between physical activity and health outcomes. On the other hand, exercise and sports genomics studies are focused on the search for genetic variants associated with athlete status, sports injuries and individual responses to training and supplement use. In this review, the findings of studies investigating genetic markers and their associations with physical activity and athlete status are reported. As of the end of September 2023, a total of 149 variants have been associated with various physical activity traits (of which 42 variants are genome-wide significant) and 253 variants have been linked to athlete status (115 endurance-related, 96 power-related, and 42 strength-related).

The Role of AGT, AMPD1, HIF1α, IL-6 Gene Polymorphisms in the Athletes' Power Status: A Meta-Analysis

This meta-analysis was designed to investigate the relationship between genetic polymorphisms (AGT rs699, AMPD1 rs17602729, HIF1α rs11549465, IL-6 rs1800795) and power athletes' status. Only case-control studies were included in the meta-analysis. A systematic search of the PubMed and Web of Science databases was performed to identify relevant studies and 23 studies met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. The data from the included studies were pooled and analyzed using a random effects or fix effects model. The effect size was calculated as the odds ratio or a risk ratio with 95% confidence intervals. The results showed that certain genetic polymorphisms, AGT rs699 Thr allele, HIF1A rs11549465 Ser allele and AMPD1 rs17602729 C allele, were significantly more prevalent in power athletes (p < 0.05). When examining the genotype frequency distribution of AGT rs699 and AMPD1 rs17602729, significant differences were found in both the dominant and recessive models (p < 0.05). The results indicate that these gene polymorphisms play a role in power athlete status, however, new and more comprehensive studies are needed to confirm these results.

Genes and Athletic Performance: The 2023 Update

Phenotypes of athletic performance and exercise capacity are complex traits influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. This update on the panel of genetic markers (DNA polymorphisms) associated with athlete status summarises recent advances in sports genomics research, including findings from candidate gene and genome-wide association (GWAS) studies, meta-analyses, and findings involving larger-scale initiatives such as the UK Biobank. As of the end of May 2023, a total of 251 DNA polymorphisms have been associated with athlete status, of which 128 genetic markers were positively associated with athlete status in at least two studies (41 endurance-related, 45 power-related, and 42 strength-related). The most promising genetic markers include the AMPD1 rs17602729 C, CDKN1A rs236448 A, HFE rs1799945 G, MYBPC3 rs1052373 G, NFIA-AS2 rs1572312 C, PPARA rs4253778 G, and PPARGC1A rs8192678 G alleles for endurance; ACTN3 rs1815739 C, AMPD1 rs17602729 C, CDKN1A rs236448 C, CPNE5 rs3213537 G, GALNTL6 rs558129 T, IGF2 rs680 G, IGSF3 rs699785 A, NOS3 rs2070744 T, and TRHR rs7832552 T alleles for power; and ACTN3 rs1815739 C, AR ≥21 CAG repeats, LRPPRC rs10186876 A, MMS22L rs9320823 T, PHACTR1 rs6905419 C, and PPARG rs1801282 G alleles for strength. It should be appreciated, however, that elite performance still cannot be predicted well using only genetic testing.

Skeletal muscle contraction kinetics and AMPK responses are modulated by the adenine nucleotide degrading enzyme AMPD1

AMP deaminase 1 (AMPD1; AMP → IMP + NH3) deficiency in skeletal muscle results in an inordinate accumulation of AMP during strenuous exercise, with some but not all studies reporting premature fatigue and reduced work capacity. To further explore these inconsistencies, we investigated the extent to which AMPD1 deficiency impacts skeletal muscle contractile function of different muscles and the [AMP]/AMPK responses to different intensities of fatiguing contractions. To reduce AMPD1 protein, we electroporated either an inhibitory AMPD1-specific miRNA encoding plasmid or a control plasmid, into contralateral EDL and SOL muscles of C57BL/6J mice (n = 48 males, 24 females). After 10 days, isolated muscles were assessed for isometric twitch, tetanic, and repeated fatiguing contraction characteristics using one of four (None, LOW, MOD, and HIGH) duty cycles. AMPD1 knockdown (∼35%) had no effect on twitch force or twitch contraction/relaxation kinetics. However, during maximal tetanic contractions, AMPD1 knockdown impaired both time-to-peak tension (TPT) and half-relaxation time (½ RT) in EDL, but not SOL muscle. In addition, AMPD1 knockdown in EDL exaggerated the AMP response to contractions at LOW (+100%) and MOD (+54%) duty cycles, but not at HIGH duty cycle. This accumulation of AMP was accompanied by increased AMPK phosphorylation (Thr-172; LOW +25%, MOD +34%) and downstream substrate phosphorylation (LOW +15%, MOD +17%). These responses to AMPD1 knockdown were not different between males and females. Our findings demonstrate that AMPD1 plays a role in maintaining skeletal muscle contractile function and regulating the energetic responses associated with repeated contractions in a muscle- but not sex-specific manner.NEW & NOTEWORTHY AMP deaminase 1 (AMPD1) deficiency has been associated with premature muscle fatigue and reduced work capacity, but this finding has been inconsistent. Herein, we report that although AMPD1 knockdown in mouse skeletal muscle does not change maximal isometric force, it negatively impacts muscle function by slowing contraction and relaxation kinetics in EDL muscle but not SOL muscle. Furthermore, AMPD1 knockdown differentially affects the [AMP]/AMPK responses to fatiguing contractions in an intensity-dependent manner in EDL muscle.

Advances in sports genomics

Sports genomics is the scientific discipline that focuses on the organization and function of the genome in elite athletes, and aims to develop molecular methods for talent identification, personalized exercise training, nutritional need and prevention of exercise-related diseases. It postulates that both genetic and environmental factors play a key role in athletic performance and related phenotypes. This update on the panel of genetic markers (DNA polymorphisms) associated with athlete status and soft-tissue injuries covers advances in research reported in recent years, including one whole genome sequencing (WGS) and four genome-wide association (GWAS) studies, as well as findings from collaborative projects and meta-analyses. At end of 2020, the total number of DNA polymorphisms associated with athlete status was 220, of which 97 markers have been found significant in at least two studies (35 endurance-related, 24 power-related, and 38 strength-related). Furthermore, 29 genetic markers have been linked to soft-tissue injuries in at least two studies. The most promising genetic markers include HFE rs1799945, MYBPC3 rs1052373, NFIA-AS2 rs1572312, PPARA rs4253778, and PPARGC1A rs8192678 for endurance; ACTN3 rs1815739, AMPD1 rs17602729, CPNE5 rs3213537, CKM rs8111989, and NOS3 rs2070744 for power; LRPPRC rs10186876, MMS22L rs9320823, PHACTR1 rs6905419, and PPARG rs1801282 for strength; and COL1A1 rs1800012, COL5A1 rs12722, COL12A1 rs970547, MMP1 rs1799750, MMP3 rs679620, and TIMP2 rs4789932 for soft-tissue injuries. It should be appreciated, however, that hundreds and even thousands of DNA polymorphisms are needed for the prediction of athletic performance and injury risk.

Association study of performance-related polymorphisms in Brazilian combat-sport athletes highlights variants in the GABPB1 gene

Combat sports are an intermittent sport, with mixed anaerobic and aerobic energy production. Here, we investigated whether the polymorphisms that have been previously suggested as genetic markers for endurance or power phenotypes were associated with combat-sport athletic status. A total of 23 previously reported performance-related polymorphisms were examined in a cohort of 1,129 Brazilian individuals (164 combat-sport athletes and 965 controls), using a case-control association study. We found that the GA-binding protein transcription factor subunit beta 1 (GABPβ1) gene (also known as nuclear respiratory factor 2; NRF2) was associated with athletic status, with the minor G (rs7181866) and T (rs8031031) alleles overrepresented in athletes (P ≤ 0.003), especially among world-class athletes (P ≤ 0.0002). These findings indicate that single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the GABPβ1 gene increase the likelihood of an individual being a combat-sport athlete, possibly because of a better mitochondrial response to intermittent exercises.

The genetic profile of elite youth soccer players and its association with power and speed depends on maturity status

We investigated the association of multiple single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with athlete status and power/speed performance in elite male youth soccer players (ESP) and control participants (CON) at different stages of maturity. ESP (n = 535; aged 8-23 years) and CON (n = 151; aged 9-26 years) were genotyped for 10 SNPs and grouped according to years from predicted peak-height-velocity (PHV), i.e. pre- or post-PHV, to determine maturity status. Participants performed bilateral vertical countermovement jumps, bilateral horizontal-forward countermovement jumps, 20m sprints and modified 505-agility tests. Compared to CON, pre-PHV ESP demonstrated a higher ACTN3 (rs1815739) XX ('endurance') genotype frequency distribution, while post-PHV ESP revealed a higher frequency distribution of the PPARA (rs4253778) C-allele, AGT (rs699) GG genotype and NOS3 (rs2070744) T-allele ('power' genotypes/alleles). BDNF (rs6265) CC, COL5A1 (rs12722) CC and NOS3 TT homozygotes sprinted quicker than A-allele carriers, CT heterozygotes and CC homozygotes, respectively. COL2A1 (rs2070739) CC and AMPD1 (rs17602729) GG homozygotes sprinted faster than their respective minor allele carrier counterparts in CON and pre-PHV ESP, respectively. BDNF CC homozygotes jumped further than T-allele carriers, while ESP COL5A1 CC homozygotes jumped higher than TT homozygotes. To conclude, we have shown for the first time that pre- and post-PHV ESP have distinct genetic profiles, with pre-PHV ESP more suited for endurance, and post-PHV ESP for power and speed (the latter phenotypes being crucial attributes for post-PHV ESP). We have also demonstrated that power, acceleration and sprint performance were associated with five SNPs, both individually and in combination, possibly by influencing muscle size and neuromuscular activation.

AMPD1 C34T Polymorphism (rs17602729) Is Not Associated with Post-Exercise Changes of Body Weight, Body Composition, and Biochemical Parameters in Caucasian Females

Background: The C34T polymorphism (rs 17602729) in adenosine monophosphate deaminase 1 gene (AMPD1) is associated with muscular energy metabolism in exercise. However, the role of its potential modifying impact on exercise-induced changes in obesity related parameters is unknown. The aim of the study was to determine if the C34T polymorphism influences the effects of an exercise training. Methods: This study examines a group of one hundred and sixty-eight, young, non-obese Caucasian women in Poland who took part in a 12-week aerobic training program to determine the impact of allele and genotype distribution on training outcomes. Results: A two-way analysis of variance ANOVA was conducted assuming a dominant model by pooling rare homozygotes and heterozygotes (TT + CT, n = 79) and comparing against common homozygotes (CC, n = 89). Our results showed that the AMPD1 C34T polymorphism was not related with selected parameters in study group. After completing the 12-week training program, a wide array of parameters (body mass, body mass index, fat mass, free fat mass, total body water) were significantly changed in the study participants with the exception of AMPD1 genotypes, among whom no significant changes were observed. Conclusions: The results did not confirm that harboring the rs 17602729 T allele influences the effects of the training program.

Genetic Markers Associated with Power Athlete Status

Athletic performance is a multifactorial phenotype influenced by environmental factors as well as multiple genetic variants. Different genetic elements have a great influence over components of athletic performance such as endurance, strength, power, flexibility, neuromuscular coordination, psychological traits and other features important in sport. The current literature review revealed that to date more than 69 genetic markers have been associated with power athlete status. For the purpose of the present review we have assigned all genetic markers described with reference to power athletes status to seven main groups: 1) markers associated with skeletal muscle structure and function, 2) markers involved in the inflammatory and repair reactions in skeletal muscle during and after exercise, 3) markers involved in blood pressure control, 4) markers involved in modulation of oxygen uptake, 5) markers that are regulators of energy metabolism and cellular homeostasis, 6) markers encoding factors that control gene expression by rearrangement of chromatin fibers and mRNA stability, and 7) markers modulating cellular signaling pathways. All data presented in the current review provide evidence to support the notion that human physical performance may be influenced by genetic profiles, especially in power sports. The current studies still represent only the first steps towards a better understanding of the genetic factors that influence power-related traits, so further analyses are necessary before implementation of research findings into practice.

Shortage of Cellular ATP as a Cause of Diseases and Strategies to Enhance ATP

Germline mutations in cellular-energy associated genes have been shown to lead to various monogenic disorders. Notably, mitochondrial disorders often impact skeletal muscle, brain, liver, heart, and kidneys, which are the body’s top energy-consuming organs. However, energy-related dysfunctions have not been widely seen as causes of common diseases, although evidence points to such a link for certain disorders. During acute energy consumption, like extreme exercise, cells increase the favorability of the adenylate kinase reaction 2-ADP -> ATP+AMP by AMP deaminase degrading AMP to IMP, which further degrades to inosine and then to purines hypoxanthine -> xanthine -> urate. Thus, increased blood urate levels may act as a barometer of extreme energy consumption. AMP deaminase deficient subjects experience some negative effects like decreased muscle power output, but also positive effects such as decreased diabetes and improved prognosis for chronic heart failure patients. That may reflect decreased energy consumption from maintaining the pool of IMP for salvage to AMP and then ATP, since de novo IMP synthesis requires burning seven ATPs. Similarly, beneficial effects have been seen in heart, skeletal muscle, or brain after treatment with allopurinol or febuxostat to inhibit xanthine oxidoreductase, which catalyzes hypoxanthine -> xanthine and xanthine -> urate reactions. Some disorders of those organs may reflect dysfunction in energy-consumption/production, and the observed beneficial effects related to reinforcement of ATP re-synthesis due to increased hypoxanthine levels in the blood and tissues. Recent clinical studies indicated that treatment with xanthine oxidoreductase inhibitors plus inosine had the strongest impact for increasing the pool of salvageable purines and leading to increased ATP levels in humans, thereby suggesting that this combination is more beneficial than a xanthine oxidoreductase inhibitor alone to treat disorders with ATP deficiency.

The influence of genetic polymorphisms on performance and cardiac and hemodynamic parameters among Brazilian soccer players

This study investigated whether ACTN3 R577X, AMPD1 C34T, I/D ACE, and M235T AGT polymorphisms can affect performance tests such as jumping, sprinting, and endurance in 220 young male athletes from professional minor league soccer team from São Paulo Futebol Clube, Brazil. I/D ACE and M235T AGT polymorphisms were also analyzed according to cardiac and hemodynamic parameters. Athletes were grouped or not by age. DNA from saliva and Taqman assays were used for genotyping 220 athletes and the results were associated with performance tests. Ventricle mass, ventricle end-diastolic diameter, end-diastolic volume, and ejection fraction were assessed by echocardiogram. Arterial pressure, heart rate, and oximetry were assessed by a cardioscope. The main results of this study were that athletes who carried RR/RX (ACTN3) and DD (ACE) genotypes presented better performance during jump and sprint tests. On the other hand, athletes with ID/II genotype presented better results during endurance test, while AGT genotypes did not seem to favor the athletes during the evaluated physical tests. CC genotype (AMPD1) only favored the athletes during 10-m sprint test. Although there are environmental interactions influencing performance, the present results suggest that RR/RX ACTN3 and ACE DD genotypes may benefit athletes in activities that require strength and speed, while II ACE genotype may benefit athletes in endurance activities. This information could help coaches to plan the training session to improve the athletes’ performance.

Effect of BDKRB2 Gene -9/+9 Polymorphism on Training Improvements in Competitive Swimmers

The aim of the study was to investigate the possible association between the BDKRB2 gene and training-induced improvements in swimming performance in well-trained swimmers. One hundred Polish swimmers (52 men and 48 women, aged 18.1 ± 1.9 years), who competed in national and international competitions at middle- (200 m) and long-distance events (≥400 m), were included in the study. Athletes' genotype and allele distributions were analyzed in comparison to 230 unrelated sedentary subjects, who served as controls, with the χ test. All samples were genotyped for the BDKRB2 -9/+9 polymorphism by polymerase chain reaction. The effects of genotype on swimming performance improvements were analyzed with two-way (3 × 2; genotype × time) analysis of variance with metric age as a covariate. The training period of 1.9 ± 0.4 years had a significant (p < 0.01) effect on swimming performance, both in female and male athletes. Both in female and male athletes, the BDKRB2 gene -9/+9 polymorphism had no significant effect on swimming performance. An interaction effect of BDKRB2 gene -9/+9 polymorphism × time was found for swimming performance only in male athletes. Post hoc analyses showed that swimmers with the +9/+9 BDKRB2 genotype had a greater improvement in swimming performance than swimmers with the -9/+9 polymorphism (p ≤ 0.05). No interaction effects for gender × BDKRB2 gene -9/+9 polymorphism were found for either swimming performance or improvement in swimming performance. These results suggest that the response to long-term exercise training could be modulated by the BDKRB2 gene -9/+9 polymorphism in male athletes. In well-trained swimmers, BDKRB2 gene variation was not found to be an independent determinant of swimming performance.

Association Study between Idiopathic Scoliosis and Polymorphic Variants of VDR, IGF-1, and AMPD1 Genes

Idiopathic scoliosis (IS) is a complex genetic disorder of the musculoskeletal system, characterized by three-dimensional rotation of the spine with unknown etiology. For the aims of the current study we selected 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms with a low incidence of the polymorphic allele in Bulgarian population, AMPD1 (rs17602729), VDR (rs2228670), and IGF-1 (rs5742612), trying to investigate the association between these genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility to and progression of IS. The polymorphic regions of the genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR products were cleaved with the appropriate restriction enzymes. The statistical analysis was performed by Pearson's chi-squared test. A value of p < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. In conclusion, this case-control study revealed no statistically significant association between the VDR, IGF-1, and AMPD1 polymorphisms and the susceptibility to IS or curve severity in Bulgarian patients. Replication case-control studies will be needed to examine the association between these candidate-genes and IS in different populations. The identification of molecular markers for IS could be useful for early detection and prognosis of the risk for a rapid progression of the curve. That would permit early stage treatment of the patient with the least invasive procedures.

Current Progress in Sports Genomics

Understanding the genetic architecture of athletic performance is an important step in the development of methods for talent identification in sport. Research concerned with molecular predictors has highlighted a number of potentially important DNA polymorphisms contributing to predisposition to success in certain types of sport. This review summarizes the evidence and mechanistic insights on the associations between DNA polymorphisms and athletic performance. A literature search (period: 1997-2014) revealed that at least 120 genetic markers are linked to elite athlete status (77 endurance-related genetic markers and 43 power/strength-related genetic markers). Notably, 11 (9%) of these genetic markers (endurance markers: ACE I, ACTN3 577X, PPARA rs4253778 G, PPARGC1A Gly482; power/strength markers: ACE D, ACTN3 Arg577, AMPD1 Gln12, HIF1A 582Ser, MTHFR rs1801131 C, NOS3 rs2070744 T, PPARG 12Ala) have shown positive associations with athlete status in three or more studies, and six markers (CREM rs1531550 A, DMD rs939787 T, GALNT13 rs10196189 G, NFIA-AS1 rs1572312 C, RBFOX1 rs7191721 G, TSHR rs7144481 C) were identified after performing genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of African-American, Jamaican, Japanese, and Russian athletes. On the other hand, the significance of 29 (24%) markers was not replicated in at least one study. Future research including multicenter GWAS, whole-genome sequencing, epigenetic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic profiling and performing meta-analyses in large cohorts of athletes is needed before these findings can be extended to practice in sport.

AMPD1 rs17602729 is associated with physical performance of sprint and power in elite Lithuanian athletes

BACKGROUND

The C34T genetic polymorphism (rs17602729) in the AMPD1 gene, encoding the skeletal muscle-specific isoform of adenosine monophosphate deaminase (AMPD1), is a common polymorphism among Caucasians that can impair exercise capacity. The aim of the present study was twofold: (1) to determine the C34T AMPD1 allele/genotype frequency distributions in Lithuanian athletes (n = 204, stratified into three groups: endurance, sprint/power and mixed) and compare them with the allele/genotype frequency distributions in randomly selected healthy Lithuanian non-athletes (n = 260) and (2) to compare common anthropometric measurements and physical performance phenotypes between the three groups of athletes depending on their AMPD1 genotype.

RESULTS

The results of our study indicate that the frequency of the AMPD1 TT genotype was 2.4% in the control group, while it was absent in the athlete group. There were significantly more sprint/power-orientated athletes with the CC genotype (86.3%) compared with the endurance-orientated athletes (72.9%), mixed athletes (67.1%), and controls (74.2%). We determined that the AMPD1 C34T polymorphism is not associated with aerobic muscle performance phenotype (VO2max). For CC genotype the short-term explosive muscle power value (based on Vertical Jump test) of athletes from the sprint/power group was significantly higher than that of the endurance group athletes (P < 0.05). The AMPD1 CC genotype is associated with anaerobic performance (Vertical Jump).

CONCLUSIONS

The AMPD1 C allele may help athletes to attain elite status in sprint/power-oriented sports, and the T allele is a factor unfavourable for athletics in sprint/power-oriented sports categories. Hence, the AMPD1 C allele can be regarded as a marker associated with the physical performance of sprint and power. Replications studies are required to confirm this association.

Performance enhancing genetic variants, oxygen uptake, heart rate, blood pressure and body mass index of elite high altitude mountaineers

AIM

To analyse and compare the ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme), ACTN3 (actinin-3) and AMPD1 (adenosine monophosphate deaminase 1) genetic variants, oxygen uptake (VO2max), heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and body mass index (BMI) of elite high altitude mountaineers and average athletes.

METHODS

Elite Bulgarian alpinists (n = 5) and control group of athletes (n = 72) were recruited. VO2max was measured using a treadmill graded protocol. HR, BP and BMI were recorded. Genotyping was done by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification followed by agarose gel electrophoresis. Chi2-test and Fisher's exact test were used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

Alpinists showed significantly higher frequencies of 60% ACE I allele (p = 0.002), 50% ACTN3 X allele (p = 0.032) and 30% AMPD1 T allele (p = 0.003) compared to controls - 39%, 36%, 13%, respectively. ACE ID genotype prevalence and null DD genotype were observed in mountaineers. Higher absolute VO2max, but no differences in VO2max ml kg-1 min-1, HR, oxygen pulse, blood pressure and BMI were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The ID genotype and higher frequencies of ACE I allele could contribute to successful high altitude ascents in mountaineers. The genetic make-up of the two mountaineers who made the summit of Mt Everest was distinctive, revealing ACE ID genotype, mutant ACTN3 XX and AMPD1 TT genotypes.