The key to success in elite athletes? Explicit and implicit motor learning in youth elite and non-elite soccer players

Skill acquisition interventions for the learning of sports-related skills: A scoping review of randomised controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Skill acquisition science is the study of how motor skills are acquired, developed and/or learned. There is substantive evidence for general motor skill acquisition in controlled laboratory settings yet the literature on the learning of sports-related skills is typically less conclusive.

OBJECTIVES

This scoping review aimed to summarise the current literature on skill acquisition intervention studies examining the learning of sports-related skills as part of a randomised controlled trial, by synthesizing and extracting the most relevant features.

METHODS

Four electronic databases (PsychINFO, PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) were searched for relevant studies. The sample characteristics of these studies were extracted, and summarised. Two systematic searches of the literature were conducted. In the first search, eighty-six studies were retained. A second search was conducted in July 2022 to include new studies and specifically focused on the inclusion of within-subject design studies, resulting in the inclusion of 35 additional studies. A third search was conducted in May 2023 to include new studies resulting in the inclusion of 10 additional studies.

RESULTS

One hundred and thirty studies across 29 sports were included in the review. The vast majority of the studies in this scoping review (n = 104) examined the learning of a sport-related skill in participants with no experience. Twenty-eight percent of all retained studies (n = 35) considered only the learning of a golf skill, and all studies were practiced in a laboratory environment, examining closed motor skills (n = 130). The most common intervention categories reported were attention (n = 22), instruction and demonstration (n = 20), practice design (n = 20), and perceptual training (n = 19). Nearly half of all studies used an immediate retention test within 48 h of the cessation of practice (n = 63), and just over one quarter of studies (n = 34) reported incorporating some form of transfer test. Eighty-six percent (n = 112) reported positive findings.

CONCLUSIONS

The skewed focus on golf skills across a small number of skill acquisition interventions, the inconsistent use and reporting of performance measures, practice durations and measures of learning alongside the relatively small sample sizes consisting mostly of inexperienced learners and the skewed publication of positive findings should warrant caution. More empirical studies across a broader range of sports and with more consistent methodologies are needed to develop a robust pool of literature that can support academics and practitioners interested in which skill acquisition interventions could be used to influence the learning of sports-related skills.

Evidence for a competitive relationship between executive functions and statistical learning

The ability of the brain to extract patterns from the environment and predict future events, known as statistical learning, has been proposed to interact in a competitive manner with prefrontal lobe-related networks and their characteristic cognitive or executive functions. However, it remains unclear whether these cognitive functions also possess a competitive relationship with implicit statistical learning across individuals and at the level of latent executive function components. In order to address this currently unknown aspect, we investigated, in two independent experiments (NStudy1 = 186, NStudy2 = 157), the relationship between implicit statistical learning, measured by the Alternating Serial Reaction Time task, and executive functions, measured by multiple neuropsychological tests. In both studies, a modest, but consistent negative correlation between implicit statistical learning and most executive function measures was observed. Factor analysis further revealed that a factor representing verbal fluency and complex working memory seemed to drive these negative correlations. Thus, the antagonistic relationship between implicit statistical learning and executive functions might specifically be mediated by the updating component of executive functions or/and long-term memory access.

Sleep-push movement performance in elite field hockey champions with and without training specialization

Objective

To investigate kinematic and muscle activity differences during the sleep-push movement in elite field hockey players. We hypothesized that players with specialized sleep-push movement training (specialists) would possess a lower center of mass (CoM) and enhanced reproducibility of muscle activations during the movement, compared to players without explicit movement training (non-specialists).

Methods

Ten field hockey players of the Belgian national field hockey team performed the sleep-push movement (5 specialists and 5 non-specialists). Muscle activity and kinematic data were recorded using EMG to evaluate the reproducibility of muscle activations by cross-correlation analysis and power spectral features across the movement, while a motion capture system was used to assess kinematics.

Results

Compared to non-specialists, specialists had significantly (p < 0.05) increased stick velocity (9.17 ± 1.28 m/s versus 6.98 ± 0.97 m/s) and lower CoM height (141 ± 52 mm versus 296 ± 64 mm), during the second part of the shot. Specialists also showed a significant (p < 0.05) lower power spectrum in the activity of the upper limb muscles before the shot. Superimposition of the auto crosscorrelation results demonstrated a high degree of reproducibility in specialists' muscle activations.

Conclusion

Sleep-push movements realized by elite players who are specialists in the sleep-push movement presented significant kinematics and muscular activation differences when compared to the sleep-push movements realized by elite players who were not specialists in such movement. Characterization of the specific movement and the related high-level performer's muscular strategies offers the possibility of translating sport science findings into functional training with concrete applications for coaches, players, and other key stakeholders for the continued development of the field.

Bridging Motor Learning Principles with Physiotherapy Specific Scoliosis Exercises: a Perspective Article

AIM

This perspective paper illustrates the usefulness of explicitly integrating motor learning terminology with evolving therapeutic approaches. Physiotherapy specific scoliosis exercises (PSSEs) include a growing number of approaches to scoliosis management and serve as an example of this integration.

METHODS

Three quintessential patient cases (a young hypermobile adolescent, a post-pubescent teen, and an adult with childhood diagnosis of scoliosis) serve to contrast the clinical decision-making process for a PSSE plan of care when organized within a motor learning framework.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

As intervention approaches evolve, aligning the unique terminologies from different schools of thought with motor learning constructs would provide a common language for clinicians, academics and researchers to facilitate comparison of approaches and organize intervention care plans. Linking a motor learning framework and terminology to PSSE may facilitate comparison of PSSE treatment approaches by clinicians, academics, and researchers, as well as advance the global quality of care for patients with scoliosis.

Effects of positive social comparative feedback on motor sequence learning and performance expectancies

Introduction

Positive social comparative feedback indicates to the learner that they are performing better than others. While this type feedback supports motor skill learning in some tasks, the effect of social comparative feedback on implicit motor sequence learning remains unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of positive social comparative feedback on the learning of and expectancies for a motor sequence task.

Methods

Forty-eight individuals practiced a joystick-based sequence task and were divided into three feedback groups: CONTROL (no performance feedback), RT ONLY (response time only feedback), and RT+POS (response time plus positive social comparison). Participants attended sessions on two consecutive days: Day 1 for repetitive motor practice/skill acquisition and Day 2 for retention testing. Performance related expectancies, like perceived competence, were measured before and after motor practice on Day 1 and at retention on Day 2.

Results

While all groups improved with practice, the CONTROL group showed better overall performance/learning (faster response times) compared with the RT ONLY group. Despite similar response times, the RT+POS showed higher peak velocities than the RT ONLY group. Overall, the RT+POS and CONTROL demonstrated increases in perceived competence while the RT ONLY group did not.

Discussion

The results of this study suggest that feedback content is an important consideration during motor practice sessions since feedback without context (RT ONLY) may be detrimental to motor sequence learning. The results also suggest that, if providing performance related feedback during practice of a skill that relies on implicit sequence learning processes, comparative context may be necessary for enhancing expectancies and supporting.

Influence of cognitive performance and swimming capacities on selection of youth water polo players to national team

BACKGROUND

Water-polo is an official competitive olympic sport with high energy and technical-tactical demands. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of cognitive performance and specific swimming capacities on the selection of youth water polo players to the national water polo team.

METHODS

There were 83 youth water polo players (mean age 13.61±0.67 years) who attended the Croatian Water Polo Foundation training camps included in this cross-sectional study. Testing included anthropometric measurements, specific swimming capacities and cognitive performance (Stroop test).

RESULTS

Among 83 youth water polo players included in this study there were 13 goalkeepers, 13 center-defenders, 13 centers, 31 perimeter players and 13 wings. Selected players (N.=40) performed faster in OffTime (selected 62.99±10.21 s vs. non-selected 69.98±8.93 s, P=0.002) and OnTime (selected 75.61±15.85 s vs. non-selected 86.01±15.40 s, P=0.004) of the Stroop test than non-selected players (N.=43). Logistic regression analysis showed significant association between selection of youth water polo players to the national team and swimming results in 400 m crawl and 100 m crawl, as well as OffTime, OnTime and OnTime minus OffTime on the Stroop test.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study showed that psychomotor ability, inhibition, motor speed and cognitive flexibility were found to be the most important predictors for the selection of youth water polo players to the national water polo team. Furthermore, selected water polo players demonstrated better psychomotor abilities, inhibition, and motor speed, as well as better results in all specific swimming tests in comparison to non-selected players.

Sport-Specific Skills Differentiate Performance Levels Better Than Anthropometric or Physiological Factors in Beach Handball

Beach handball is characterized by high- and low-intensity efforts on an unstable surface. Players are expected to display high levels of physical performance on sand, though there are no data concerning success in elite players. Purpose: This study aimed to address anthropometric, fitness, and sport-specific skills components in beach handball, by comparing elite national team beach handball players (world champions) to sub-elite players (playing at a regular club). Method: A total of 91 senior players (more than 21 years old) of both genders (19 world champions) were assessed for anthropometry, 5-m acceleration, 15-m sprint, handgrip strength, horizontal jump, and three specific sport-specific skills (ball velocities in standing, inflight and spin throwing) at a beach court. Anthropometric, physiological, and sport-specific skill test variables were analyzed as a multiple dependent variable using a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with sex and level (elite vs sub-elite) as the fixed factors. SPSS (25.0) was used, significance was assumed at p < .05. Results: The results highlighted that for male and female athletes, horizontal jump, 6-m standing, spin, and inflight throwing discriminated between elite and sub-elite groups (p < .001). Conclusion: The study suggests that the factors which differentiate between elite and sub-elite performers in beach handball are horizontal jump and technical ability via the performance of specific throwing skills, rather than anthropometric or any other physical variables, irrespective of sex. These findings highlight some of the relevant physical capacities and skills that need to be developed over the years of preparation of top-level beach handball players.

Morphological and functional asymmetry in elite youth tennis players compared to sex- and age-matched controls

Besides examining upper and lower limb morphological and functional asymmetry magnitudes, this study examined the relationship between lean mass and functional asymmetry in terms of magnitude and direction in 41 youth tennis players versus 41 controls. Asymmetry magnitude was determined using anthropometric measurements (circumferences, widths), bioelectrical impedance analysis (lean mass) and a test battery (handgrip strength, seated medicine ball throw, plate tapping, single leg countermovement jump, single leg forward hop test, 6 m single leg hop test, 505 change of direction). ANOVAs compared the dominant (overall highest/best value) against the non-dominant (highest/best value of opposing limb) result. Linear regressions explored the relationship between lean mass and functional asymmetry magnitudes. Kappa coefficients examined asymmetry direction consistency between the limb displaying the highest lean mass value and the limb performing dominantly across tests. Significant asymmetry magnitudes (p < 0.05) were found for all upper and lower limb outcome measures. No significant relationship was apparent between lean mass and functional asymmetry magnitude (r-value = -0.283-0.262). Despite finding (almost) perfect consistency in asymmetry direction (k-value = 0.84-1.00) for the upper limb, poor to slight consistency (k-value = -0.03-0.15) was found for the lower limb. Therefore, lean mass and functional asymmetry should be examined independently.

The benefit of assessing implicit sequence learning in pianists with an eye-tracked serial reaction time task

Playing piano professionally has been shown to benefit implicit motor sequence learning. The aim of the current study was to determine whether this advantage reflects generally enhanced implicit sequence learning unrelated to pianists' higher motor and/or visual-motor coordination abilities. We examined implicit sequence learning using the ocular serial reaction time (O-SRT) task, a manual-free eye-tracked version of the standard SRT, in 29 pianists and 31 controls. Reaction times (RT) and correct anticipations (CA) of several phases describing implicit sequence learning were analyzed. Furthermore, explicit sequence knowledge was compared between the groups, and relationships between implicit sequence learning with explicit sequence knowledge or demographic measures were evaluated. Pianists demonstrated superiority in all critical phases of implicit sequence learning (RT and CA). Moreover, pianists acquired higher explicit sequence knowledge, and only in pianists was explicit sequence knowledge related to implicit sequence learning. Our results demonstrate that pianists' superiority in implicit sequence learning is due to a higher general implicit sequence learning ability. Hence, we can exclude that higher motor and/or visual-motor coordination abilities are related to pianists' higher implicit sequence learning. Furthermore, the significant relationship of implicit sequence learning and explicit sequence knowledge suggests that pianists either used explicit strategies to support implicit sequence learning, had better explicit access to sequence knowledge, or both.

Comparison of whole-body sensorimotor skill learning between strength athletes, endurance athletes and healthy sedentary adults

Motor sequences represent an integral part of human motor ability. Apart from simple movement sequences, complex coordinated movement sequences are the building blocks for peak athletic performance. Accordingly, optimized temporal and spatial coordination of muscle action across multiple limbs may be a distinguishing feature between athletes and non-athletes in many sports. In the present study, we aimed to assess differences between strength and endurance athletes and non-athletes during learning of a complex whole-body serial reaction time task (CWB-SRTT). For this purpose, 26 nonathletes (NAG) and 25 athletes (AG) learned the CWB-SRTT over 2 days separated by 7 days. Mean response times of participants were recorded and statistically analyzed for sequence-specific and non-sequence-specific improvements, as well as differences in learning rates and retention. Furthermore, AG was subdivided into strength (SG) and endurance (EG) athletes, and all analysis steps were repeated. Our results show a better mean response time of AG compared to NAG. However, we could not detect differences in sequence-specific or non-sequence-specific learning, as well as different retention rates between NAG and AG or SG and EG. We assume here that a potential lack of motor transfer between general athletic abilities and the specific complex motor sequence mainly accounts for our findings.

Can Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Improve Athletic Performance? A Systematic Review

This systematic review was conducted to evaluate the effect of heart rate variability biofeedback (HRV BFB) on performance of athletes. Six electronic databases (Springerlink, SportDiscus, Web of Science, PROQUEST Academic Research Library, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect) and article references were searched. Eligibility criteria were: 1. experimental studies involving athletes randomly allocated among groups (randomized control trial); 2. availability of HRV BFB as a treatment compared to a control condition (CON) that involves regular sport/dance training, a placebo (PLA) or other methods of BFB; 3. performance-related variables such as a dependent index; and, 4. peer-reviewed articles written in English. Out of 660 articles, six studies were included in the systematic review which involved 187 athletes (females: n = 89; males n = 98). Six studies compared HRV BFB with a CON, three studies compared HRV BFB with a PLA, and two studies differentiated HRV BFB with other methods of BFB. Findings support HRV BFB as a potential intervention to improve fine and gross motor function in athletes.

Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of Primary Motor Cortex on Reaction Time and Tapping Performance: A Comparison Between Athletes and Non-athletes

Recent studies provided compelling evidence that physical activity leads to specific changes on a functional and structural level of brain organization. The observed neural adaptions are specific to the sport and manifested in those brain regions which are associated with neuronal processing of sport-specific skills. Techniques of non-invasive brain stimulation have been shown to induce neuroplastic changes and thereby also facilitate task performance. In the present study, we investigated the influence of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the leg area of the primary motor cortex (M1) on simple reaction time tasks (RTT) and tapping tasks (TT) as a comparison between trained football (FB) and handball players (HB) and non-athletes (NA). We hypothesized that anodal tDCS over M1 (leg area) would lead to specific behavioral gains in RTT and TT performance of the lower extremity as compared to sham condition. On an exploratory level, we aimed at revealing if trained athletes would show stronger tDCS-induced behavioral gains as compared to NA, and, furthermore, if there are any differential effects between FB and HB. A total number of 46 participants were enrolled in a sham-controlled, double-blinded, cross-over study. A test block consisting of RTT and TT was performed before, during, after as well as 30 min after a 20-min tDCS application. Additionally, the specificity of tDCS-induced changes was examined by testing upper extremity using the same experimental design as a control condition. Our data showed no group- or sport-specific tDCS-induced effects (online and offline) on RTT and TT neither for lower nor upper extremities. These findings indicate that neither athletes nor NA seems to benefit from a brief period of tDCS application in speed-related motor tasks. However, more knowledge on neuronal processing of RTT and TT performance in trained athletes, the influence of tDCS parameters including stimulation sites, and the effect of inter-individual differences are required in order to draw a comprehensive picture of whether tDCS can help to enhance motor abilities on a high-performance level.

Physical Activity and Cognitive Functioning of Children: A Systematic Review

Childhood is an important and sensitive period for cognitive development. There is limited published research regarding the relationship between sports and cognitive functions in children. We present studies that demonstrate the influence of physical activity on health, especially a positive correlation between sports and cognitive functions. The keywords “children, cognition, cognitive function, physical activity, and brain” were searched for using PsycInfo, Medline, and Google Scholar, with publication dates ranging from January 2000 to November 2017. Of the 617 results, 58 articles strictly connected to the main topics of physical activity and cognitive functioning were then reviewed. The areas of attention, thinking, language, learning, and memory were analyzed relative to sports and childhood. Results suggest that engaging in sports in late childhood positively influences cognitive and emotional functions. There is a paucity of publications that investigate the impact of sports on pre-adolescents’ cognitive functions, or explore which cognitive functions are developed by which sporting disciplines. Such knowledge would be useful in developing training programs for pre-adolescents, aimed at improving cognitive functions that may guide both researchers and practitioners relative to the wide range of benefits that result from physical activity.

An Examination of Adolescent Athletes and Nonathletes on Baseline Neuropsychological Test Scores

CONTEXT

  An estimated 15.3 million adolescent students are enrolled in US high schools, with approximately 7.8 million participating in athletics. Researchers have examined various demographics in high school athletes; however, athletic participation may play a larger role in test performance than previously thought. Currently, investigations of concussion assessment may rely on uninjured athletes as controls. However, due to the intense nature of athletics, this may not be an appropriate practice.

OBJECTIVE

  To examine differences between athletes and nonathletes using a common computerized neuropsychological test.

DESIGN

  Retrospective cross-sectional study.

SETTING

  High schools from a school district in Columbus, Ohio.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

  A total of 662 adolescent high school students (athletes: n = 383, female n = 18; nonathletes: n = 279, female n = 193).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

  Participants were administered a computerized neuropsychological test battery (Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test [ImPACT]) during baseline concussion assessment. Differences between groups were established for output composite scores.

RESULTS

  Differences were found between athletes and nonathletes in composite reaction time ( F_1,522 = 14.855, P < .001) and total symptom score ( F_1,427 = 33.770, P < .001). Nonathletes reported more symptoms, whereas athletes had faster reaction times. No differences were present in composite verbal memory, composite visual memory, composite visual motor speed, or composite impulse control ( P > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

  Symptom reporting and reaction time differed between high school athletes and nonathletes. Participation in extracurricular activities may lead to cognitive differences in adolescents that can influence performance on the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test battery. Researchers should account for these differences in baseline performance when making concussion diagnostic and management decisions.

The effect of small-sided games with different levels of opposition on the tactical behaviour of young footballers with different levels of sport expertise

To optimize players' tactical abilities, coaches need to design training sessions with representative learning tasks, such as, small-sided games. Moreover, it is necessary to adapt the complexity of the tasks to the skill level of the athletes to maximally improve their perceptual, visual and attentive abilities. The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of two teaching programs, each utilizing modified games with varied levels of opposition, on decision-making and action execution in young players with different levels of sports expertise. 19 football players (U12), separated into two ability groups (Average versus Low skill-level), participated in a series of training sessions that were spread over 4 phases: Pre-intervention 1, Intervention 1 (teaching program based on modified games with numerical superiority in attack), Pre-intervention 2 and Intervention 2 (teaching program based on modified games with numerical equality). Each intervention phase lasted 14 sessions. Decision-making and the execution of pass action during league matches over the same period were evaluated using the Game Performance Evaluation Tool (GPET). The Average skill-level group showed significant differences after the first intervention in decision-making and execution of the pass action (decision-making, p = .015; execution, p = .031), but not after the second intervention (decision-making, p = 1.000; execution, p = 1.000). For the Low skill-level group, significant differences were only observed in the execution of passing between the first and last phases (p = .014). These findings seem to indicate that for groups with an average level of expertise, training with numerical superiority in attack provides players with more time to make better decisions and to better execute actions. However, for lower-level groups programs may take longer to facilitate improvement. Nevertheless, numerical equality did not result in improvement for either group.

Neurodevelopmental readiness of children for participation in sports

Many children participate in organized sports each year as a means of socialization, and physical skill building. Sports participation is dependent on physical growth, and neurodevelopmental readiness of the child. It is important to be aware of a child's level across the various streams of development and engage in specific strategies to optimize their ability at each age group. This article first outlines developmental skills across various age groups in childhood, and makes suggestions for such strategies.

Motor learning in a complex balance task and associated neuroplasticity: a comparison between endurance athletes and nonathletes

Studies suggested that motor expertise is associated with functional and structural brain alterations, which positively affect sensorimotor performance and learning capabilities. The purpose of the present study was to unravel differences in motor skill learning and associated functional neuroplasticity between endurance athletes (EA) and nonathletes (NA). For this purpose, participants had to perform a multimodal balance task (MBT) training on 2 sessions, which were separated by 1 wk. Before and after MBT training, a static balance task (SBT) had to be performed. MBT-induced functional neuroplasticity and neuromuscular alterations were assessed by means of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electromyography (EMG) during SBT performance. We hypothesized that EA would showed superior initial SBT performance and stronger MBT-induced improvements in SBT learning rates compared with NA. On a cortical level, we hypothesized that MBT training would lead to differential learning-dependent functional changes in motor-related brain regions [such as primary motor cortex (M1)] during SBT performance. In fact, EA showed superior initial SBT performance, whereas learning rates did not differ between groups. On a cortical level, fNIRS recordings (time × group interaction) revealed a stronger MBT-induced decrease in left M1 and inferior parietal lobe (IPL) for deoxygenated hemoglobin in EA. Even more interesting, learning rates were correlated with fNIRS changes in right M1/IPL. On the basis of these findings, we provide novel evidence for superior MBT training-induced functional neuroplasticity in highly trained athletes. Future studies should investigate these effects in different sports disciplines to strengthen previous work on experience-dependent neuroplasticity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Motor expertise is associated with functional/structural brain plasticity. How such neuroplastic reorganization translates into altered motor learning processes remains elusive. We investigated endurance athletes (EA) and nonathletes (NA) in a multimodal balance task (MBT). EA showed superior static balance performance (SBT), whereas MBT-induced SBT improvements did not differ between groups. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy recordings revealed a differential MBT training-induced decrease of deoxygenated hemoglobin in left primary motor cortex and inferior parietal lobe between groups.

Do Elite and Amateur Soccer Players Outperform Non-Athletes on Neurocognitive Functioning? A Study Among 8-12 Year Old Children

AIM

Research suggested a positive association between physical fitness and neurocognitive functioning in children. Aim of the present study is to investigate possible dose-response relationships between diverse daily physical activities and a broad range of neurocognitive functions in preadolescent children. Furthermore, the relationship between several sedentary behaviours, including TV-watching, gaming and computer time, and neurocognitive functioning will be investigated in this group of children.

METHODS

A total of 168 preadolescent boys, aged 8 to 12 years, were recruited from various locations, including primary schools, an amateur soccer club, and a professional soccer club, to increase variability in the amount of participation in sports. All children performed neurocognitive tasks measuring inhibition, short term memory, working memory, attention and information processing speed. Regression analyses examined the predictive power of a broad range of physical activities, including sports, active transport to school, physical education (PE), outdoor play, and sedentary behaviour such as TV-watching and gaming, for neurocognitive functioning.

RESULTS

Time spent in sports significantly accounted for the variance in inhibition, short term memory, working memory and lapses of attention, where more time spent in sports was associated with better performance. Outdoor play was also positively associated with working memory. In contrast, time spent on the computer was negatively associated with inhibition.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of the current study suggest a positive relationship between participation in sports and several important neurocognitive functions. Interventions are recommended to increase sports participation and to reduce sedentary behaviour in preadolescent children.