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Niklasson E, Lindholm O, Rietz M, Lind J, Johnson D, Lundberg TR. Who Reaches the NHL? A 20-Year Retrospective Analysis of Junior and Adult Ice Hockey Success in Relation to Biological Maturation in Male Swedish Players. Sports Med 2024; 54:1317-1326. [PMID: 38194055 PMCID: PMC11127826 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01985-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study investigated the relationship between biological maturation and success in adolescence and adulthood in male Swedish ice hockey players. METHODS Anthropometric records of players in certified ice hockey high schools between 1998 and 2017 were retrieved (n = 4787). The database was complemented with records of Swedish junior national teams (U16, U18, U20) and National Hockey League (NHL) appearances. Biological maturation was recorded as a percentage of adult height (%AH), and selection probabilities were estimated using a generalised linear mixed effects model. Biological age was determined by comparing players with age-matched growth reference values. Categories of %AH, standard deviation z-scores and biological age offset describing early, on-time and late maturation were created. RESULTS A total of 217 players had played on the U16 national team (junior success), and 96 reached the NHL (adult success). The difference [95% confidence interval (CI)] in baseline %AH between players with junior versus adult success was - 0.75 (- 0.39, - 1.11). Looking at age-offset categories in junior success, 30% of players were early maturing and 19% of players were late maturing, showing a bias towards early maturation (p < 0.01). In contrast, more late-maturing players (40%) achieved adult success than early-maturing players (25%), and NHL players had significantly later maturation [%AH: - 0.48 (- 0.80, - 0.16)] than non-NHL players. CONCLUSION This unique 20-year analysis shows that junior success in male ice hockey is positively related to early maturation, while adult success is inversely related to advanced maturation. Ice hockey organisations should implement maturation assessments to optimise the development of both late- and early-matured players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Niklasson
- Division of Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, ANA Futura, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, 14152, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Oliver Lindholm
- Division of Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, ANA Futura, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, 14152, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marlene Rietz
- Division of Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, ANA Futura, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, 14152, Stockholm, Sweden
- Research Unit for Exercise Epidemiology, Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, Center for Research in Childhood Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - John Lind
- Swedish Ice Hockey Association, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - David Johnson
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, England, UK
| | - Tommy R Lundberg
- Division of Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, ANA Futura, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, 14152, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Alcântara CH, Machado JC, Teixeira RM, Rossato M, Teixeira AS, Fernandes da Silva J. What Factors Discriminate Young Soccer Players Perceived as Promising and Less Promising by Their Coaches? RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2023; 94:966-974. [PMID: 35802482 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2022.2088675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to verify whether there are differences in physical, technical, and tactical assessment outcomes derived from field-based tests and small-sided games (SSG) in addition to anthropometric and maturational characteristics between players classified as promising and less promising as per the coaches' perception. Method: A total of 53 male U-15 youth soccer players (age: 14.8 ± 0.2 years, weight: 61.7 ± 6.9 kg, height: 171.8 ± 6.7 cm) and three experienced coaches from three distinct sports clubs were enrolled in this study. Based on the coaches' perception, players were split into three group levels for both short- and long-term success ranking: (i) promising (PL; top 5 players; n = 15), (ii) intermediate (IL; n = 23) and (iii) less promising (LPL; 5 bottom players; n = 15). The following measures were determined: anthropometry, maturity offset, vertical jump, and aerobic-anaerobic running performance, soccer- specific skills tests, GPS-based running metrics, technical and tactical actions during SSG, and minutes played throughout the season. Results: There were no differences between groups for anthropometrical, maturational, and physical outcomes. PL players in both rankings covered more distances at sprinting and presented more offensive technical and tactical actions during SSG than their LPL peers. PL and IL presented more minutes played in competitive seasons than LPL of short-term ranking. Conclusion: The biggest differences between the players ranked by their coaches were apparent only during a representative game task, emphasizing the importance of SSG as a tool to assess the players' technical-tactical awareness. In addition to the SSG, the coach's eye plays a key role during the talent identification and selection process.
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de la Rubia A, Lorenzo-Calvo J, Rojas-Valverde D, Mon-López D, Radnor J, Kelly AL. Bio-Banding in Handball: Academy Players' Perceptions Based on Maturity Status and Gender. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:871-881. [PMID: 37524114 DOI: 10.1055/a-2145-6454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate young male and female handball players' perceptions of the bio-banding concept. The estimated biological maturity status was assessed in a sample of 46 male and 40 female handball players (aged 14.06±1.40 years), who competed in both an annual age-group and bio-banded tournament. To test the players' perception of bio-banding, a post-competition questionnaire was conducted. A series of ANOVA and one-sample t-tests were used in order to examine the differences in perception between the different maturity groups. An inductive thematic analysis of the qualitative data recorded in the open-ended questions was also carried out. The results showed that early-maturing boys enjoyed the bio-banding tournament more than late-maturing boys (p<0.05). Conversely, no differences were found in girls (p>0.05). Furthermore, discussions were conducted based on the qualitative analysis of the players' written comments regarding their overall experience, finding individual variance in biological maturity may be less relevant in female sports contexts due to gender-related differences. Thus, a greater influence on play and leadership in late maturing boys and early maturing girls, a greater physical challenge in early maturing boys and an opportunity to express themselves technically and tactically in late maturing boys and on-time maturing girls were observed. Therefore, stakeholders must consider the different consequences of bio-banding in order to maximize the athlete's sport development process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso de la Rubia
- Deporte y Entrenamiento Research Group, Sports Department, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (Spain)
| | - Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo
- Deporte y Entrenamiento Research Group, Sports Department, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (Spain)
| | - Daniel Rojas-Valverde
- Escuela de Ciencias del Movimiento Humano y Calidad de Vida, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Daniel Mon-López
- Deporte y Entrenamiento Research Group, Sports Department, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (Spain)
| | - John Radnor
- School of Sport and Health Sciences - Youth Physical Development Centre, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Adam L Kelly
- Athlete Development and Youth Sport (ADYS) Lab, Research Centre for Life and Sport Sciences (CLaSS), Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Arenas L, Frenger M, Skorski S, Meyer T. Survey of the current practices of German football academies towards biological maturation assessment. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37840319 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2023.2270563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to examine the importance assigned to assessing and considering biological maturation in thematic areas of player development and provide an overview of current practices in German football academies regarding its consideration in training and competition. METHODS An online survey was sent to 56 elite German football academies. A total of 46 responded to the questionnaire (82% response rate). Six participants provided incomplete information resulting in a total of 40 completed surveys in the period from March to May 2022. RESULTS Only 20 of participants regularly carried out maturation assessments, despite 95% recognizing its importance for load management, 90% for player development, and 85% for injury prevention. There was no consistent approach to modifying training and competition formats based on maturity status, with a primary focus on gym-based sessions for load management. CONCLUSION The survey results highlight limited implementation of maturation assessment and training modification based on maturity status in German elite youth football academies. Despite recognizing the importance of load monitoring, reporting to parents, and long-term player development in considering biological maturation, practices are not widespread. The predominant use of the maturity offset method suggests an opportunity to improve accuracy by exploring alternative measurement methods and increasing assessment frequency. Moreover, a lack of established procedures for incorporating maturity status into training and competition exists, hindering comprehensive consideration of biological maturation and injury risk prevention. Further research is needed to understand the reasons for inconsistent approaches in maturation assessment and load modification during training and competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Arenas
- Institute of Sport and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Monika Frenger
- Department Economics and Sociology of Sport, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sabrina Skorski
- Institute of Sport and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Tim Meyer
- Institute of Sport and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Martinho DV, Coelho-E-Silva MJ, Gonçalves Santos J, Oliveira TG, Minderico CS, Seabra A, Valente-Dos-Santos J, Sherar LB, Malina RM. Body Size, Fatness and Skeletal Age in Female Youth Soccer Players. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:711-719. [PMID: 34734401 DOI: 10.1055/a-1686-4563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Growth and maturation are central concerns in the organization of training and competitions in youth sports. This study examined maturity-associated variation in body size and adiposity among adolescent girls participating in competitive age group youth soccer. The sample included 441 players 10.08-16.73 years of age. Stature and body mass were measured and body composition was predicted. The Fels method was used to estimate skeletal age. Skeletally maturity status (late, average or early maturing) was based on the difference between chronological and skeletal age for each player. Mean stature approximated the 50th percentiles of the general population in all competitive age groups, while mean weight fluctuated between 50th and 75th percentiles. Age- and maturity-specific means for estimated fat mass ranged between 18.0% and 28.2%. The number of players classified as skeletally mature increased with competitive age groups (under-13: 0%; under-15: 8%; under-17: 49%). In general, early maturing girls tended to be heavier than their age group peers and especially when compared to late maturing players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo V Martinho
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal
- CIDAF (uid/dtp/04213/2020), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Manuel J Coelho-E-Silva
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal
- CIDAF (uid/dtp/04213/2020), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | | | - Cláudia S Minderico
- Exercise and Health Laboratory, University of Lisbon Faculty of Human Kinetics, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Andre Seabra
- Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- CIAFEL, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Joao Valente-Dos-Santos
- CIDAF (uid/dtp/04213/2020), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Lusofona University, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lauren B Sherar
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Robert M Malina
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States
- School of Public Health and Information Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, United States
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Sousa-E-Silva P, Coelho-E-Silva MJ, Celis-Moreno JM, Costa DC, Martinho DV, Ribeiro LP, Oliveira T, Gonçalves-Santos J, Tavares OM, Castanheira JM, Pereira T, Conde J, Cayolla RR, Duarte-Mendes P, Myburgh GK, Cumming SP, Malina RM. Intra-observer reproducibility and inter-observer agreement of Fels skeletal age assessments among male tennis players 8-16 years. BMC Pediatr 2023; 23:196. [PMID: 37101252 PMCID: PMC10131323 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-023-03965-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skeletal age (SA) is an estimate of biological maturity status that is commonly used in sport-related medical examinations. This study considered intra-observer reproducibility and inter-observer agreement of SA assessments among male tennis players. METHODS SA was assessed with the Fels method in 97 male tennis players with chronological ages (CA) spanning 8.7-16.8 years. Radiographs were evaluated by two independent trained observers. Based on the difference between SA and CA, players were classified as late, average or early maturing; if a player was skeletally mature, he was noted as such as an SA is not assigned. RESULTS The magnitude of intra-individual differences between repeated SA assessments were d = 0.008 year (observer A) and d = 0.001 year (observer B); the respective coefficients of variation were 1.11% and 1.75%. Inter-observer mean differences were negligible (t = 1.252, p = 0.210) and the intra-class correlation coefficient was nearly perfect (ICC = 0.995). Concordance of classifications of players by maturity status between observers was 90%. CONCLUSION Fels SA assessments were highly reproducible and showed an acceptable level of inter-observer agreement between trained examiners. Classifications of players by skeletal maturity status based on assessments of the two observers were highly concordant, though not 100%. The results highlight the importance of experienced observers in skeletal maturity assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Sousa-E-Silva
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Manuel J Coelho-E-Silva
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal.
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Jorge M Celis-Moreno
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal
- Universidad Santo Tomás, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Daniela C Costa
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Diogo V Martinho
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luís P Ribeiro
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
- University of Algarve, School of Health, Faro, Portugal
| | - Tomas Oliveira
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Oscar M Tavares
- Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Health School, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joaquim M Castanheira
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
- Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Health School, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Telmo Pereira
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
- Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Health School, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jorge Conde
- Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Health School, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo R Cayolla
- University Portucalense, REMIT (Research Centre on Economics, Management and Information Technologies), Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Duarte-Mendes
- Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, School of Education, Castelo Branco, Portugal
- Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Sport, Health & Exercise Research Unit (SHERU), Castelo Branco, Portugal
| | | | | | - Robert M Malina
- University of Texas at Austin, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, Austin, TX, USA
- University of Louisville, School of Public Health and Information Sciences, Louisville, KY, USA
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Ginés HJ, Huertas F, García Calvo T, Ponce-Bordón JC, Figueiredo AJ, Ballester R. Age and Maturation Matter in Youth Elite Soccer, but Depending on Competitive Level and Gender. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:2015. [PMID: 36767382 PMCID: PMC9915155 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20032015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the relevance of the relative age effect (RAE), maturity status and anthropometry, and their influence on coaches' assessment of players' performance, analyzing both genders and different types of academies (elite vs. non-elite). The sample included 603 soccer players (385 male), from the under 12 (U12), under 14 (U14) and under 16 (U16) categories, belonging to elite and nonelite teams. Coaches' assessment of players' performance, chronological age, anthropometric characteristics, maturity offset (MO) and peak height velocity (PHV) were registered. Our results showed that RAE was present in both genders within the elite, but not in the nonelite academies. Early maturity players were overrepresented in the male elite, but not in the female academies. No relationship was found between RAE and anthropometry in male elite academies. Male elite players showed better anthropometric characteristics than nonelite players, while this pattern of results was not found for female players. The coaches' assessment on players' current performance was not influenced by the chronological age nor anthropometry, but it was linked to the PHV. Coaches from nonelite academies rated better in current assessment of performance the taller players. Our findings suggest that maturity status and RAE play an independent and important role in the talent selection process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honorato J. Ginés
- Doctorate School, Catholic University of Valencia “San Vicente Mártir”, 46008 Valencia, Spain
| | - Florentino Huertas
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Catholic University of Valencia “San Vicente Mártir”, 46900 Torrent, Spain
| | - Tomás García Calvo
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
| | | | - António J. Figueiredo
- Faculty of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rafael Ballester
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Catholic University of Valencia “San Vicente Mártir”, 46900 Torrent, Spain
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Difernand A, De Larochelambert Q, Homo S, Rousseau F, Antero J, Toussaint JF, Sedeaud A. Relative age effects in track-and-field: Identification and performance rebalancing. Front Physiol 2023; 13:1082174. [PMID: 36714323 PMCID: PMC9879012 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1082174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Relative Age Effect (RAE) consists of a biased distribution of the dates of birth in a same-age group. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate Relative Age Effect among French athletes in different track-and-field events, and propose a corrective adjustment method to highlight the true potential of an athlete with respect to his/her relative age. Methods: 358,610 performances from 2009 to 2019 of female and male athletes between 12 and 21 years old were collected. Relative age distributions of performances were analyzed by level of competitiveness ("All," "Top50%," "Top10%" where "all" represents all athletes, top50% and top10% represent the best 50% and 10% of athletes per age category respectively) and age category, with chi-square and odd-ratio statistics. A linear relationship between distribution of performances and age leads to a calibration coefficient allowing to rebalance the performance by considering the effect of Relative Age Effect. Validation is obtained by Wilcoxon statistical test on actual athlete data. Results: Relative Age Effect is present in all types of events. It is larger when the level of competitiveness increases. In male 100 m sprint, 1 year difference between two athletes birth date represents an average gain of 931.01 ms (6.5%) in the U13 (Under 13 years old) and 229.65 ms (1.9%) in the U17 (Under 17 years old) categories. Our validated rebalancing methods allows to compensate for the biases induced by the relative age effect. By comparing the rebalanced performance and the realised performance of each athlete, we cannot say that they are significantly different. On average, there is no significant difference between these two performances. Conclusion: This study showed that there is a relative age effect among young French athletes, with an even greater effect as the level of competition increases. Thanks to the rebalancing method that has been validated, performances can now be better appreciated according to category and event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Difernand
- IRMES—URP 7329, Institut de Recherche Médicale et d’Epidémiologie du Sport, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France,INSEP, Institut National du Sport, de l’Expertise et de la Performance, Paris, France,*Correspondence: Audrey Difernand,
| | - Quentin De Larochelambert
- IRMES—URP 7329, Institut de Recherche Médicale et d’Epidémiologie du Sport, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France,INSEP, Institut National du Sport, de l’Expertise et de la Performance, Paris, France
| | | | - Florian Rousseau
- Fédération Française de Cyclisme, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Juliana Antero
- IRMES—URP 7329, Institut de Recherche Médicale et d’Epidémiologie du Sport, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France,INSEP, Institut National du Sport, de l’Expertise et de la Performance, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Toussaint
- IRMES—URP 7329, Institut de Recherche Médicale et d’Epidémiologie du Sport, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France,INSEP, Institut National du Sport, de l’Expertise et de la Performance, Paris, France,Centre d’Investigation en Médecine du Sport, Assistance Publique—Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Adrien Sedeaud
- IRMES—URP 7329, Institut de Recherche Médicale et d’Epidémiologie du Sport, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France,INSEP, Institut National du Sport, de l’Expertise et de la Performance, Paris, France
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Sweeney L, Taylor J, MacNamara Á. Push and Pull Factors: Contextualising Biological Maturation and Relative Age in Talent Development Systems. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 10:children10010130. [PMID: 36670680 PMCID: PMC9857589 DOI: 10.3390/children10010130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In this conceptual paper, we contextualise ongoing attempts to manage challenge dynamics in talent systems in sport. Firstly, we review the broad literature base related to biological maturation, relative age, and the proposed interventions to mitigate effects. We suggest that the relative age effect may be a population level effect, indicative of deeper phenomena, rather than having a direct effect on challenge levels. In contrast, we suggest that biological maturation has a direct effect on challenge at the individual level. Therefore, our main critique of many existing approaches to the management of challenge is a lack of individual nuance and flexibility. We suggest the necessity for talent systems to adopt a more holistic approach, conceptualising biological maturation and relative age within a broader field of "push and pull factors" that impact challenge dynamics in talent development in sport. Finally, we provide practical guidance for talent systems in their approach to relative age and biological maturation, recognising that there is no "gold standard". Instead, there is a need to recognize the highly individual and contextual nature of these concepts, focusing on strategic coherence through talent systems for the management of selection and development processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Sweeney
- School of Health and Human Performance, Faculty of Science and Health, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, D09 W6Y4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jamie Taylor
- School of Health and Human Performance, Faculty of Science and Health, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, D09 W6Y4 Dublin, Ireland
- Grey Matters Performance Ltd., Stratford Upon Avon CV37 9TQ, UK
- Insight SFI Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, D09 W6Y4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Áine MacNamara
- School of Health and Human Performance, Faculty of Science and Health, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, D09 W6Y4 Dublin, Ireland
- Correspondence:
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Towlson C, Watson DJ, Cumming S, Salter J, Toner J. Soccer academy practitioners' perceptions and application of bio-banding. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0274079. [PMID: 36701276 PMCID: PMC9879534 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0274079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary aims of this study were to examine the application of maturity status bio-banding within professional soccer academy programmes and understand the methods employed, the intended objectives, and the potential barriers to bio-banding. Using a mixed method design, twenty-five professional soccer academy practitioners completed an online survey designed to examine their perceptions of the influence of maturation on practice, their perceptions and application of bio-banding, and the perceived barriers to the implementation of this method. Frequency and percentages of responses for individual items were calculated. In the next phase of the study, seven participants who had experience with, or knowledge of, the bio-banding process within an academy youth soccer setting were recruited to complete a semi-structured interview. Interview data was transcribed and analysed using a combination of deductive and inductive approaches to identify key themes. The main findings across the two phases of the study were that [1] there is consensus among the practitioners that the individual effect of maturation impacts their ability to accurately assess the soccer competencies, [2] the majority (80%) of the sample had implemented bio-banding, with practitioners showing a clear preference for using the Khamis and Roche method to bio-band players, with the greatest perceived benefit being during maturity-matched formats, specifically for late or post-PHV players, [3] Practitioners perceived that bio-banding enhances their ability to assess academy soccer players, and [4] practitioners who have used bio-banding believe that the method is an effective way of enhancing the perception of challenge thereby providing a number of psycho-social benefits. Findings suggest that a collaborative and multi-disciplinary approach is required to enhance the likelihood of bio-banding being successfully implemented within the typical training schedules across the adolescent phase of the player development pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Towlson
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Demi Jo Watson
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie Salter
- School of Sport, York St John University, York, United Kingdom
| | - John Toner
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Towlson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Science, University of Hull, Hull, UK
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12
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Charbonnet B, Sieghartsleitner R, Schmid J, Zuber C, Zibung M, Conzelmann A. Maturity-based correction mechanism for talent identification: When is it needed, does it work, and does it help to better predict who will make it to the pros? J Sports Sci Med 2022. [DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2022.640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
When identifying talent, the confounding influence of maturity status on motor performances is an acknowledged problem. To solve this problem, correction mechanisms have been proposed to transform maturity-biased test scores into maturity-unbiased ones. Whether or not such corrections also improve predictive validity remains unclear. To address this question, we calculated correlations between maturity indicators and motor performance variables among a sample of 121 fifteen-year-old elite youth football players in Switzerland. We corrected motor performance scores identified as maturity-biased, and we assessed correction procedure efficacy. Subsequently, we examined whether corrected scores better predicted levels of performance achievement 6 years after data collection (47 professionals vs. 74 non-professional players) compared with raw scores using point biserial correlations, binary logistic regression models, and DeLong tests. Expectedly, maturity indicators correlated with raw scores (0.16 ≤ | r | ≤ 0.72; ps < 0.05), yet not with corrected scores. Contrary to expectations, corrected scores were not associated with an additional predictive benefit (univariate: no significant r-change; multivariate: 0.02 ≤ ΔAUC ≤ 0.03, ps > 0.05). We do not interpret raw and corrected score equivalent predictions as a sign of correction mechanism futility (more work for the same output); rather we view them as an invitation to take corrected scores seriously into account (same output, one fewer problem) and to revise correction-related expectations according to initial predictive validity of motor variables, validity of maturity indicators, initial maturity-bias, and selection systems. Recommending maturity-based corrections is legitimate, yet currently based on theoretical rather than empirical (predictive) arguments.
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13
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Papadakis Z, Panoutsakopoulos V, Kollias IA. Predictive Value of Repeated Jump Testing on Nomination Status in Professional and under 19 Soccer Players. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13077. [PMID: 36293658 PMCID: PMC9602553 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Soccer clubs invest time and money in multidimensional identification practices, but the field implementation is still problematic. The repeated vertical jump test (RVJ), as an alternative to the monodimensional vertical jump, may offer similar prognostic value. Therefore, the prognostic validity of 15 RVJ within professional (PRO, n = 24) and under 19 years old (U19, n = 20) Greek male soccer players was examined. T-test, binomial logistic regression, and receiver operating characteristic for prognostic validity of anthropometric and performance values in predicting PRO status were applied using Jamovi version 2.3.3.0. Significant group differences presented in body height and mass, body mass index (BMI), maximum and average jump height, and relative jump power. The predicting model was significant (x2(2) = 17.12, p < 0.001). Height and BMI were positive predictors of the PRO status (b = 21.66, p = 0.008 and b = 0.94, p = 0.014, respectively). The model was 73% accurate, 75% specific, and 71% sensitive, with excellent area under the curve. The RVJ test demonstrated outstanding discriminating prognostic validity. Until the applicability of the multidimensional models in predicting future player status is further established, field practitioners may use the simplistic RVJ testing to predict future status among male soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zacharias Papadakis
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Health Promotion and Clinical Practice, College of Health and Wellness, Barry University, Miami Shores, FL 33161, USA
| | - Vassilios Panoutsakopoulos
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at Thessaloniki, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Iraklis A. Kollias
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at Thessaloniki, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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14
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The Percentage of Mature Height as a Morphometric Index of Somatic Growth: A Formal Scrutiny of Conventional Simple Ratio Scaling Assumptions. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2022; 35:107-115. [PMID: 36126945 DOI: 10.1123/pes.2022-0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess conventional assumptions that underpin the percentage of mature height index as the simple ratio of screening height (numerator) divided by actual or predicted adult height (denominator). METHODS We examined cross-sectional data from 99 academy youth soccer players (chronological age range, 11.5 to 17.7 y) skeletally immature at the screening time and with adult height measurements available at follow-up. RESULTS The y-intercept value of -60 cm (95% confidence interval, -115 to -6 cm) from linear regression between screening height and adult height indicated the failure to meet the zero y-intercept assumption. The correlation coefficient between present height and adult height of .64 (95% confidence interval, .50 to .74) was not equal to the ratio of coefficient of variations between these variables (CVx/CVy = 0.46) suggesting Tanner's special circumstance was violated. The non-zero correlation between the ratio and the denominator of .21 (95% confidence interval, .01 to .39) indicated that the percentage of mature height was biased low for players with generally shorter adult height, and vice versa. CONCLUSION For the first time, we have demonstrated that the percentage of mature height is an inconsistent statistic for determining the extent of completed growth, leading to potentially biased inferences for research and applied purposes.
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15
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Lüdin D, Donath L, Cobley S, Mann D, Romann M. Player-labelling as a solution to overcome maturation selection biases in youth football. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1641-1647. [PMID: 35969578 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2099077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
The fact that potentially skilled, but biologically later-maturing athletes are less likely to be selected into talent development programmes (TDP) can represent a failure of Talent Identification (TID) in sports. To overcome maturation selection biases, maturation independent TID should be established to include less mature, but talented athletes in TDP more frequently. Using a randomised parallel-group design, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of labelling under-11 (U11) Swiss male youth football players (n = 24, age = 11.0 ± 0.3 years) via maturation-ordered shirt numbers during rank assessment by talent scouts (n = 83, scout experience = 4.8 ± 2.4 years). Following observation of video recorded selection tournaments, player-labelling "informed" scouts were significantly more likely to rank less mature players higher on their player potential, t(81) = 2.57, p = .012, d = -0.6, 95% CI [-1.00, -0.13], than "uninformed" scouts. As altered rankings assisted less mature players, player-labelling may offer a practical and feasible strategy to improve TID by removing possible maturation selection biases. To address maturation selection biases and the potential positive impact of player-labelling more broadly, further research on both male and female athletes in various age categories and sports contexts is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Lüdin
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department of Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Lars Donath
- German Sport University Cologne, Department of Intervention Research in Exercise Training, Cologne, Germany
| | - Stephen Cobley
- University of Sydney, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Sydney, Australia
| | - David Mann
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department of Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
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16
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Barrett S, Short K, Lowthorpe A, Swinton P, Maughan P, Hamilton A, Hunter F, Towlson C. Examination of differential ratings of perceived exertion (dRPE) during bio-banded small-sided games. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0270259. [PMID: 35905073 PMCID: PMC9337628 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of the current study were to investigate the use of dRPE with academy soccer players to: 1) examine the effect of bio-banded and non-bio-banded maturity groups within SSG on players dRPE; 2) describe the multivariate relationships between dRPE measures investigating the sources of intra and inter-individual variation, and the effects of maturation and bio-banding. Using 32 highly trained under (U) 12 to U14 soccer players (mean (SD) age 12.9 (0.9) years, body mass 46.4 (8.5) kg and stature 158.2 (14.9) cm) academy soccer players from two English professional male soccer academies. Players were categorised according to somatic maturity status using estimated percentage of adult stature attainment, with players randomly assigned into teams to play 4v4 SSG. The study used a repeated measures design, whereby the selected players participated within 6 bio-banded (maturity matched [pre-PHV Vs pre-PHV and post-PHV vs post PHV] and miss-matched [pre-PHV vs post-PHV] and 6 mixed maturity SSG at their respective clubs. Using mixed and fixed effect regression models, it was established hat pre-PHV players exhibited higher dRPE compared with their post-PHV counterparts. Mixed bio-banded games reported higher dRPE outputs overall. Variation in dRPE measures across a series of bio-banded games are caused by both between and within sources of variation in relatively equal amounts. Across a series of bio-banded games, the four dRPE measures do not provide unique information, and between variation is best expressed by one or two highly correlated components, with within variation best explained by a single equally loaded component. Using a bio-banding SSG design study, we have shown that pre-PHV players report higher subjective measures of exertion than post-PHV players during. Additionally, when evenly mixing players based on measures of maturation, higher measures of perceived exertion were generally reported.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kieran Short
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Lowthorpe
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Swinton
- School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Maughan
- School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- School of Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Frances Hunter
- Middlesbrough Football Club, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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17
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Bolckmans S, Starkes JL, Towlson C, Barnes C, Parkin G, Helsen WF. Leveling the Playing Field: A New Proposed Method to Address Relative Age- and Maturity-Related Bias in UK Male Academy Soccer Players. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:847438. [PMID: 35308598 PMCID: PMC8928578 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.847438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Relative age selection bias persists within all major soccer leagues and youth soccer academies across the globe, with the relative age effect (RAE) being typically characterized as the over selection of relatively older players (who have sometimes also been shown to be early maturing). The aim of this study was to examine if a new allocation method (i) eliminates the RAE, and (ii) reduces the presence of any additional maturity-related differences in anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics which may exist between players within the same selection category. In the first phase, 1,003 academy soccer players [under (U) 9–16] from 23 UK professional soccer clubs were sampled and a clear RAE per birth quarter (Q) was observed for the overall sample (Q1 = 45.0% vs. Q4 = 9.8%) as well as for the different age categories. Using the newly suggested reallocation method, youth players were divided by allocation date which was defined as the midway point between the chronological age and the estimated developmental (ED) birthdate. Stature was used as an anthropometric reference point on the P50 of the growth curve to determine the developmental birthdate for this new method. After the reallocation of the players using ED, the distribution of players was more equally spread (Q1 = 25.3%, Q2 = 25.6%, Q3 = 22.4%, Q4 = 26.7%). After reallocation, the mean delta stature was reduced by 16.6 cm (from 40.3 ± 7.08 to 23.7 ± 4.09 cm, d = 2.87). The mean delta body mass difference after allocation was reduced by 6.7kg (from 33.2 ± 6.39 to 26.5 ± 4.85 kg, d = 1.18). The mean age difference increased from 1.8 to 3.9 years. A total of 42.7% of the sample would have been reallocated to a different age group compared to the current one. After reallocation, 45% of the anthropometric and physical fitness comparisons showed reductions in the within-group variation expressed as a percentage of coefficient of variation (CV%). The U10 players demonstrated the largest reduction in CV% (−7.6%) of the anthropometric characteristics. The U10 squad also showed the largest reduction in CV% for various physical fitness characteristics (−7.5%). By both eliminating the RAE and reducing temporary maturity-related anthropometric and physical fitness differences, soccer academies across the world may diversify and increase the size of the talent pool both for clubs and national youth teams. In conclusion, this study provides further evidence that the newly proposed allocation method shows the potential to remove the RAE and to create a more “leveled playing field” by reducing the within-group variation of anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics affording relatively younger, and eventually, late-maturing players the opportunity to develop their talent fairly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Bolckmans
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Köln, Germany
- *Correspondence: Sofie Bolckmans
| | - Janet L. Starkes
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Barnes
- CB Sports Performance Ltd., Rugeley, United Kingdom
- Staffordshire University, Stoke on Trent, United Kingdom
| | - Guy Parkin
- Pro Football Support, Huddersfield, United Kingdom
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18
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Till K, Lloyd RS, McCormack S, Williams G, Baker J, Eisenmann JC. Optimising long-term athletic development: An investigation of practitioners' knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0262995. [PMID: 35077515 PMCID: PMC8789126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term athletic development practices have been recommended for the past two decades. However, limited research exists exploring the knowledge and skills required by practitioners to optimise long-term athletic development. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, adherence, practices, and challenges of practitioners responsible for delivering long-term athletic development. A mixed methods survey was completed by 236 practitioners (e.g., sport coaches, physical education teachers) consisting of four parts; 1) demographics, 2) knowledge, 3) adherence, and 4) practices and challenges. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed by Friedman’s analysis of variance and thematic analyses, respectively. Quantitative findings showed practitioners 1) recognised their responsibility for delivering long-term athletic development, 2) have a familiarity with existing developmental models, and 3) had high adherence, focused upon health and wellbeing, to delivering long-term athletic development. However, practices associated with growth and maturity, monitoring and assessment, and the systematic progression and individualisation of training had lower adherence. Qualitative analysis indicated that practitioner’s perceived definitions of athleticism and long-term athletic development were inconsistent, especially according to the psychological components (i.e., confidence). Practitioners’ descriptions of their long-term athletic development practices identified two higher order themes; 1) goals, in which long-term athletic development “is for life” and the importance of “an individual centered journey” highlighted as sub-themes; and 2) realities of delivering long-term athletic development, whereby variety in programme delivery, monitoring development and practical challenges were noted as key priorities. Eight practical challenges were identified including governance and priorities, resources, education, early specialization, high training volumes, staff communication, parents and youth motivation. This mixed method survey highlighted a multitude of knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges towards long-term athletic development. These novel findings can help inform policy to optimise long-term athletic development and to support the complex problem of developing a healthier, fitter and more physically active youth population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Till
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Leeds Rhinos Rugby League Club, Leeds, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Rhodri S. Lloyd
- Youth Physical Development Centre, Cardiff School of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre for Sport Science and Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Sam McCormack
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
- England Performance Unit, Rugby Football League, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | - Joseph Baker
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joey C. Eisenmann
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
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19
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Roberts SJ, McRobert AP, Rudd J, Enright K, Reeves MJ. Research in Another un-Examined (RAE) context. A chronology of 35 years of relative age effect research in soccer: is it time to move on? SCI MED FOOTBALL 2022; 5:301-309. [PMID: 35077305 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2020.1841278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
It is approximately 35 years since the publication of the first relative age effect paper in sport and despite the volume of empirical studies, book chapters, conference presentations, and column inches dedicated to this topic we appear to be no further on in eliminating or attenuating this discriminatory practice. This commentary argues that the ongoing use of univariate methods, focusing on primary or secondary analyses of birth-date data, unearthed from previously un-examined contexts is not conducive to stimulating discussion or providing empirical solutions to relative age effects. This paper concludes by suggesting a departure from the traditionally narrow view of relative age inquiry and instead consider the role of transdisciplinary research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Roberts
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Football Exchange, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Allistair P McRobert
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Football Exchange, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - James Rudd
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kevin Enright
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Football Exchange, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Matthew J Reeves
- UCLan Research Centre for Applied Sport, Physical Activity & Performance, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
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20
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Towlson C, MacMaster C, Gonçalves B, Sampaio J, Toner J, MacFarlane N, Barrett S, Hamilton A, Jack R, Hunter F, Myers T, Abt G. The effect of bio-banding on physical and psychological indicators of talent identification in academy soccer players. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2022; 5:280-292. [PMID: 35077307 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2020.1862419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of bio-banding on indicators of talent identification in academy soccer players. Seventy-two 11 to 14-year-old soccer players were bio-banded using percentage of estimated adult stature attainment (week 1), maturity-offset (week 2) or a mixed-maturity method (week 3). Players contested five maturity (mis)matched small-sided games with physical and psychological determinants measured. Data were analysed using a series of Bayesian hierarchical models, fitted with different response distributions and different random and fixed effect structures. Few between-maturity differences existed for physical measures. Pre-peak height velocity (PHV) and post-PHV players differed in PlayerLoadTM (anterior-posterior and medial-lateral) having effect sizes above our criterion value. Estimated adult stature attainment explained more of the variance in eight of the physical variables and showed the greatest individual differences between maturity groups across all psychological variables. Pre-PHV and post-PHV players differed in positive attitude, confidence, competitiveness, total psychological score (effect sizes = 0.43-0.69), and session rating of perceived exertion. The maturity-offset method outperformed the estimated adult stature attainment method in all psychological variables. Maturity-matched bio-banding had limited effect on physical variables across all players while enhancing a number of psychological variables considered key for talent identification in pre-PHV players.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Calum MacMaster
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, UK.,Hull City AFC, Hull, UK
| | - Bruno Gonçalves
- Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal.,Comprehensive Health Research Centre (CHRC), Universidade de Évora, Portugal.,Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Jaime Sampaio
- Centro de Investigação de Desporto, Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal
| | - John Toner
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, UK
| | | | | | | | - Rory Jack
- Hamilton Academical Football Club, Hamilton, UK
| | | | - Tony Myers
- Faculty of Arts, Society and Professional Studies, Newman University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Grant Abt
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, UK
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21
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McBurnie AJ, Dos'Santos T, Johnson D, Leng E. Training Management of the Elite Adolescent Soccer Player throughout Maturation. Sports (Basel) 2021; 9:170. [PMID: 34941808 PMCID: PMC8708071 DOI: 10.3390/sports9120170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Professional soccer clubs invest significantly into the development of their academy prospects with the hopes of producing elite players. Talented youngsters in elite development systems are exposed to high amounts of sports-specific practise with the aims of developing the foundational skills underpinning the capabilities needed to excel in the game. Yet large disparities in maturation status, growth-related issues, and highly-specialised sport practise predisposes these elite youth soccer players to an increased injury risk. However, practitioners may scaffold a performance monitoring and injury surveillance framework over an academy to facilitate data-informed training decisions that may not only mitigate this inherent injury risk, but also enhance athletic performance. Constant communication between members of the multi-disciplinary team enables context to build around an individual's training status and risk profile, and ensures that a progressive, varied, and bespoke training programme is provided at all stages of development to maximise athletic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair J McBurnie
- Football Medicine & Sports Science, Manchester United F.C., AON Training Complex, Manchester M31 4BH, UK
- Department of Sport Science, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK
| | - Thomas Dos'Santos
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M15 6BH, UK
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 7EL, UK
| | - David Johnson
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Edward Leng
- Football Medicine & Sports Science, Manchester United F.C., AON Training Complex, Manchester M31 4BH, UK
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22
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Towlson C, Abt G, Barrett S, Cumming S, Hunter F, Hamilton A, Lowthorpe A, Goncalves B, Corsie M, Swinton P. The effect of bio-banding on academy soccer player passing networks: Implications of relative pitch size. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260867. [PMID: 34914749 PMCID: PMC8675666 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary aims of this study were to examine the effects of bio-banding players on passing networks created during 4v4 small-sided games (SSGs), while also examining the interaction of pitch size using passing network analysis compared to a coach-based scoring system of player performance. Using a repeated measures design, 32 players from two English Championship soccer clubs contested mixed maturity and bio-banded SSGs. Each week, a different pitch size was used: Week 1) small (36.1 m2 per player); week 2) medium (72.0 m2 per player); week 3) large (108.8 m2 per player); and week 4) expansive (144.50 m2 per player). All players contested 12 maturity (mis)matched and 12 mixed maturity SSGs. Technical-tactical outcome measures were collected automatically using a foot-mounted device containing an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and the Game Technical Scoring Chart (GTSC) was used to subjectively quantify the technical performance of players. Passing data collected from the IMUs were used to construct passing networks. Mixed effect models were used with statistical inferences made using generalized likelihood ratio tests, accompanied by Cohen's local f2 to quantify the effect magnitude of each independent variable (game type, pitch size and maturation). Consistent trends were identified with mean values for all passing network and coach-based scoring metrics indicating better performance and more effective collective behaviours for early compared with late maturation players. Network metrics established differences (f2 = 0.00 to 0.05) primarily for early maturation players indicating that they became more integral to passing and team dynamics when playing in a mixed-maturation team. However, coach-based scoring was unable to identify differences across bio-banding game types (f2 = 0.00 to 0.02). Pitch size had the largest effect on metrics captured at the team level (f2 = 0.24 to 0.27) with smaller pitch areas leading to increased technical actions. The results of this study suggest that the use of passing networks may provide additional insight into the effects of interventions such as bio-banding and that the number of early-maturing players should be considered when using mixed-maturity playing formats to help to minimize late-maturing players over-relying on their early-maturing counterparts during match-play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Grant Abt
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Frances Hunter
- Middlesbrough Football Club, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | | | - Alex Lowthorpe
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Goncalves
- Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal
- Comprehensive Health Research Centre (CHRC), Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Martin Corsie
- School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Swinton
- School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
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23
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Pérez-González B, León-Quismondo J, Bonal J, Burillo P, Fernández-Luna Á. The New Generation of Professional Soccer Talent Is Born under the Bias of the RAE: Relative Age Effect in International Male Youth Soccer Championships. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 8:children8121117. [PMID: 34943315 PMCID: PMC8700599 DOI: 10.3390/children8121117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In 2019, numerous championships of youth categories soccer national teams were held. In the present study, we analyzed the existence of the Relative Age Effect (RAE) in four major male championships that, due to their importance and participating teams, most likely brought together the great bulk of the players who will dominate professional soccer in the next decade. Participants were professional and amateur youth male soccer players who participated in the last international championships: UEFA European Under-21 Championship (2017–2019); UEFA European Under-19 Championship (2019); South American Youth Football Championship (also known as Conmebol U-20) (2019); and FIFA U-20 World Cup (2019), with 823 players (20.25 ± 0.84 years). In the four championships analyzed, the existence of RAE was found for all players (p < 0.001). Analyzing the players when considering their position on the pitch and their championship, RAE was found, statistically significant, in 10 of the 16 classifications. New generations of elite soccer players arrive with a clear bias in the selection of talent; an unfair bias, based on unequal opportunities in early categories, which should be reviewed by sports authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benito Pérez-González
- Faculty of Business and Communication, Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain;
| | - Jairo León-Quismondo
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Calle Tajo S/N, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain; (J.B.); (P.B.); (Á.F.-L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-912-113-505
| | - José Bonal
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Calle Tajo S/N, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain; (J.B.); (P.B.); (Á.F.-L.)
| | - Pablo Burillo
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Calle Tajo S/N, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain; (J.B.); (P.B.); (Á.F.-L.)
| | - Álvaro Fernández-Luna
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Calle Tajo S/N, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain; (J.B.); (P.B.); (Á.F.-L.)
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MacMaster C, Portas M, Parkin G, Cumming S, Wilcox C, Towlson C. The effect of bio-banding on the anthropometric, physical fitness and functional movement characteristics of academy soccer players. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260136. [PMID: 34843528 PMCID: PMC8629286 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The study examined if maturity status bio-banding reduces within-group variance in anthropometric, physical fitness and functional movement characteristics of 319, under-14 and under-15 players from 19 UK professional soccer academies. Bio-banding reduced the within-bio-banded group variance for anthropometric values, when compared to an aggregated chronological banded group (chronological: 5.1-16.7%CV; bio-banded: 3.0-17.3%CV). Differences between these bio-banded groups ranged from moderate to very large (ES = 0.97 to 2.88). Physical performance variance (chronological: 4.8-24.9%CV; bio-banded: 3.8-26.5%CV) was also reduced with bio-banding compared to chronological aged grouping. However, not to the same extent as anthropometric values with only 68.3% of values reduced across banding methods compared to 92.6% for anthropometric data. Differences between the bio-banded groups physical qualities ranged from trivial to very large (ES = 0.00 to 3.00). The number of functional movement metrics and %CV reduced by bio-banding was lowest within the 'circa-PHV' groups (11.1-44.4%). The proportion of players achieving the threshold value score of ≥ 14 for the FMS™ was highest within the 'post-PHV' group (50.0-53.7%). The use of maturity status bio-banding can create more homogenous groups which may encourage greater competitive equity. However, findings here support a bio-banding maturity effect hypothesis, whereby maturity status bio-banding has a heightened effect on controlling for characteristics which have a stronger association to biological growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calum MacMaster
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Matt Portas
- The English Football Association, St Georges Park, Burton Upton Trent, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
- School of Health and Science, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Guy Parkin
- Pro Football Support, Huddersfield, Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, Somerset, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Wilcox
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Yorkshire, United Kingdom
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Maturity-Associated Differences in Match Running Performance in Elite Male Youth Soccer Players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 17:1352-1360. [PMID: 34706339 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the influence of maturation on match running performance in elite male youth soccer players. METHODS A total of 37 elite male youth soccer participants from an English professional soccer academy from the U14s, U15s, and U16s age groups were assessed over the course of 1 competitive playing season (2018-2019). Relative biological maturity was assessed using percentage of predicted adult height. A global positioning system device was used between 2 and 30 (mean = 8 [5]) times on each outfield player. The position of each player in each game was defined as defender, midfielder, or attacker and spine or lateral. A total of 5 match-running metrics were collected total distance covered, high-speed running distance, very high-speed running distance, maximum speed attained, and number of accelerations. RESULTS Relative biological maturity was positively associated with all global positioning system running metrics for U14s. The U15/16s showed variation in the associations among the global positioning system running metrics against maturity status. A multilevel model which allowed slopes to vary was the best model for all parameters for both age groups. In the U14 age group, advanced maturation was associated with greater high-speed running distance. However, maturation did not contribute toward variance in any of the indices of running performance in the U15/16s. In the U15/16 age group, significance was observed in the spine/lateral playing positions when undertaking actions that required covering distance at high speeds. CONCLUSIONS Maturation appeared to have an impact on match-running metrics within the U14s cohort. However, within the U15/16s, the influence of maturation on match-running metrics appeared to have less of an impact.
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Almeida CH, Volossovitch A. Relative age effect among U14 football players in Portugal: do geographical location, team quality and playing position matter? SCI MED FOOTBALL 2021; 6:285-294. [DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2021.1977840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna Volossovitch
- CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, SpertLab, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
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Patel TS, McGregor A, Cumming SP, Williams K, Williams S. Return to competitive gymnastics training in the UK following the first COVID-19 national lockdown. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 32:191-201. [PMID: 34558741 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Following the outbreak of COVID-19 (coronavirus), the UK entered a national lockdown, and all sport was suspended. The study aimed to explore the process of returning to gymnastics training after several months away from the gym, with a particular interest towards training load and injury. Twenty-six, national programmed gymnasts from Men's artistic, Women's artistic and Trampoline gymnastics recorded training load and injury whilst returning to training. At the end of data collection, three coaches were interviewed to further explore the experiences and practices of returning to training. Home-based training during lockdown was seen as beneficial in maintaining a level of fitness. Coaches described a gradual increase in training to reduce the risk of injury, and this partly explains a non-significant association between training load and a substantial injury (p = 0.441). However, week-to-week changes in training load following periods of additional restrictions (additional lockdown, periods of isolation, or substantial restrictions) were not always gradual. There was a significant association between an injury in the preceding week (niggle or substantial injury to a different body part) and a substantial injury in the subsequent week (RR: 5.29, p = 0.011). Monitoring training was described to be a useful practice during the process of returning to training. Coaches believed that although the short-term development of their gymnasts was affected, the long-term development would not be impacted from COVID-19. It is anticipated that learnings from this study can be applied to future practices and situations, particularly when gymnasts are away from the gym for an extended period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejal Sarika Patel
- British Gymnastics, Lilleshall National Sports Centre, Shropshire, UK.,Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Alex McGregor
- British Gymnastics, Lilleshall National Sports Centre, Shropshire, UK
| | | | - Karen Williams
- British Gymnastics, Lilleshall National Sports Centre, Shropshire, UK
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Lüdin D, Donath L, Cobley S, Romann M. Effect of bio-banding on physiological and technical-tactical key performance indicators in youth elite soccer. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1659-1667. [PMID: 34542017 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1974100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bio-banding has been introduced to reduce the impact of inter-individual differences due to biological maturation among youth athletes. Existing studies in youth soccer have generally examined the pilot-testing application of bio-banding. This is the first study that investigated whether bio-banded (BB) versus chronological age (CA) competition affects reliable physiological and technical-tactical in-game key performance indicators (KPIs) using a randomized cross-over repeated measures design. Sixty-five youth elite soccer players from the under-13 (U13) and under-14 (U14) age category and with maturity offsets (MO) between -2.5 and 0.5 years, competed in both a BB and CA game. For statistical analysis, players were divided into four sub-groups according to CA and MO: U13MOlow (CA ≤ 12.7, MO ≤ -1.4), U13MOhigh (CA ≤ 12.7, MO > -1.4), U14MOlow (CA > 12.7, MO ≤ -1.4), U14MOhigh (CA > 12.7, MO > -1.4). The two-factor mixed ANOVA revealed significant (p < .05) interactions between competition format and sub-group for the KPIs high accelerations (ηp2 = .176), conquered balls (ηp2 = .227) and attack balls (ηp2 = .146). Especially, U13MOhigh (i.e. early maturing players) faced a higher physiological challenge by having more high accelerations (|d| = 0.6) in BB games. Notably, U14MOlow (i.e. late maturing players) had more opportunities to show their technical-tactical abilities during BB games with more conquered balls (|d| = 1.1) and attack balls (|d| = 1.6). Affected KPIs indicate new challenges and learning opportunities during BB competition depending on a player's individual maturity status. Bio-banding can beneficially be applied to enhance the talent development of youth elite soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Lüdin
- Department of Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Lars Donath
- Department of Intervention Research in Exercise Training, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Stephen Cobley
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michael Romann
- Department of Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
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Fernandes RA, López-Plaza D, Correas-Gómez L, Gomes BB, Alacid F. The Importance of Biological Maturation and Years of Practice in Kayaking Performance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18168322. [PMID: 34444072 PMCID: PMC8392238 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Previous canoe sprint studies evaluated the best paddlers of their categories. This investigation aimed to identify the importance of biological maturation and athletes' experience in kayaking performance and observe possible differences regarding anthropometry, years of practice, and performance. Eighty under 14 years of age (U14) and fifty under 16 years of age (U16) kayakers aged 13.40 ± 0.54 and 15.25 ± 0.61 years were evaluated. Kayakers were assessed for anthropometry (body mass (kg); stretch stature (cm); and sitting height (cm)), performance (time at 3000 m for U14 and 5000 m for U16 kayakers), and somatic maturation (predicted adult height (PAH) and maturity offset). In the U14 kayakers, years of practice, sitting height, and maturity offset showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between the Top10 and Middle, and Middle and Bottom10 performance times. Significantly higher (p < 0.05) sitting heights were identified between the Top10 and Middle U16 kayakers. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed for maturity offset and PAH% between the Top10 and Middle groups compared to the Bottom10 group. In conclusion, this research shows differences in the maturity status of young U14 and U16 kayakers, identifying that the more biologically mature individuals, with more years of specific practice, achieved better performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui António Fernandes
- Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal; (R.A.F.); (B.B.G.)
| | - Daniel López-Plaza
- Sport Medicine Chair, Catholic University of Murcia, 30107 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Lorena Correas-Gómez
- Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Andalucia Tech, 29071 Málaga, Spain;
| | - Beatriz Branquinho Gomes
- Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal; (R.A.F.); (B.B.G.)
| | - Fernando Alacid
- Faculty of Education Sciences, Health Research Center, University of Almeria, 04120 Almeria, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Towlson C, Salter J, Ade JD, Enright K, Harper LD, Page RM, Malone JJ. Maturity-associated considerations for training load, injury risk, and physical performance in youth soccer: One size does not fit all. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2021; 10:403-412. [PMID: 32961300 PMCID: PMC8343060 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Biological maturation can be defined as the timing and tempo of progress to achieving a mature state. The estimation of age of peak height velocity (PHV) or percentage of final estimated adult stature attainment (%EASA) is typically used to inform the training process in young athletes. In youth soccer, maturity-related changes in anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics are diverse among individuals, particularly around PHV. During this time, players are also at an increased risk of sustaining an overuse or growth-related injury. As a result, the implementation of training interventions can be challenging. The purpose of this review was to (1) highlight and discuss many of the methods that can be used to estimate maturation in the applied setting and (2) discuss the implications of manipulating training load around PHV on physical development and injury risk. We have provided key stakeholders with a practical online tool for estimating player maturation status (Supplementary Maturity Estimation Tools). Whilst estimating maturity using predictive equations is useful in guiding the training process, practitioners should be aware of its limitations. To increase the accuracy and usefulness of data, it is also vital that sports scientists implement reliable testing protocols at predetermined time-points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK.
| | - Jamie Salter
- School of Sport, York St John University, York YO31 7EX, UK
| | - Jack D Ade
- Liverpool FC Academy, Liverpool Football Club, Liverpool L33 7ED, UK; Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, L3, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3A, UK
| | - Kevin Enright
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, L3, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3A, UK
| | - Liam D Harper
- Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
| | - Richard M Page
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk L39 4QP, UK
| | - James J Malone
- School of Health Sciences, Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
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Towlson C, MacMaster C, Parr J, Cumming S. One of these things is not like the other: Time to differentiate between relative age and biological maturity selection biases in soccer? SCI MED FOOTBALL 2021; 6:273-276. [DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2021.1946133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Calum MacMaster
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Birmingham, UK
| | - James Parr
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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Giudicelli BB, Luz LGO, Sogut M, Sarmento H, Massart AG, Júnior AC, Field A, Figueiredo AJ. Chronological Age, Somatic Maturation and Anthropometric Measures: Association with Physical Performance of Young Male Judo Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126410. [PMID: 34199255 PMCID: PMC8296232 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Sport for children and adolescents must consider growth and maturation to ensure suitable training and competition, and anthropometric variables could be used as bio-banding strategies in youth sport. This investigation aimed to analyze the association between chronological age, biologic maturation, and anthropometric characteristics to explain physical performance of young judo athletes. Sixty-seven judokas (11.0–14.7 years) were assessed for anthropometric and physical performance. Predicted adult stature was used as a somatic maturation indicator. A Pearson’s bivariate correlation was performed to define which anthropometric variables were associated with each physical test. A multiple linear hierarchical regression was conducted to verify the effects of age, maturity, and anthropometry on physical performance. The regression models were built with age, predicted adult stature, and the three most significantly correlated anthropometric variables for each physical test. Older judokas performed better in most of the physical tests. However, maturation attenuated the age effect in most variables and significantly affected upper body and handgrip strength. Anthropometric variables attenuated age and maturity and those associated with body composition significantly affected the performance in most tests, suggesting a potential as bio-banding strategies. Future studies should investigate the role of anthropometric variables on the maturity effect in young judokas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno B. Giudicelli
- Faculty of Sport Science and Physical Education, Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal; (L.G.O.L.); (H.S.); (A.G.M.); (A.J.F.)
- Kinanthropometry, Physical Activity and Health Promotion Laboratory (LACAPS), Federal University of Alagoas—Campus Arapiraca, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-82-98111-0109
| | - Leonardo G. O. Luz
- Faculty of Sport Science and Physical Education, Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal; (L.G.O.L.); (H.S.); (A.G.M.); (A.J.F.)
- Kinanthropometry, Physical Activity and Health Promotion Laboratory (LACAPS), Federal University of Alagoas—Campus Arapiraca, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil;
| | - Mustafa Sogut
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey;
| | - Hugo Sarmento
- Faculty of Sport Science and Physical Education, Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal; (L.G.O.L.); (H.S.); (A.G.M.); (A.J.F.)
| | - Alain G. Massart
- Faculty of Sport Science and Physical Education, Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal; (L.G.O.L.); (H.S.); (A.G.M.); (A.J.F.)
| | - Arnaldo C. Júnior
- Kinanthropometry, Physical Activity and Health Promotion Laboratory (LACAPS), Federal University of Alagoas—Campus Arapiraca, Arapiraca 57309-005, Brazil;
| | - Adam Field
- School of Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK;
| | - António J. Figueiredo
- Faculty of Sport Science and Physical Education, Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal; (L.G.O.L.); (H.S.); (A.G.M.); (A.J.F.)
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Sweeney L, Horan D, MacNamara Á. Premature Professionalisation or Early Engagement? Examining Practise in Football Player Pathways. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:660167. [PMID: 34164620 PMCID: PMC8215134 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.660167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing debate, both in the academic and sporting worlds, about the most appropriate pathway for high potential young players in sport. In this regard, there has been a considerable focus on the age of selection into structured talent development pathways and the nature of the experience once players have been recruited. Given the economic and reputational currency associated with developing professional footballers in particular, it is unsurprising that professional football clubs continue to invest significant financial resources into their academy structures. Understandably, this recruitment policy has attracted substantial attention within the media and research community, with ethical concerns arising surrounding the impact early selection may have on the welfare and the experiences of the young players within the pathway. The aim of this perspective article was to critically consider the research underpinning the early engagement practises of football clubs and the extent to which, and how, the pathway can provide players with the most appropriate starting point for their development. This evidence points to the need to look beyond the prevalent 'early specialisation vs. diversification' debate in youth sport towards a consideration of an early engagement perspective that reflects the biopsychosocial influences on talent development and the socio-political environment that influences decisions. We provide practical recommendations focused on the quality of the early engagement experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Sweeney
- Faculty of Science and Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Dan Horan
- High Performance Department, Football Association of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Áine MacNamara
- Faculty of Science and Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
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Eisenmann JC, Till K, Baker J. Growth, maturation and youth sports: issues and practical solutions. Ann Hum Biol 2021; 47:324-327. [PMID: 32996816 DOI: 10.1080/03014460.2020.1764099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kevin Till
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - James Baker
- Department of Sport Science and Coaching, Aspire Academy, Doha, Qatar
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Arede J, Cumming S, Johnson D, Leite N. The effects of maturity matched and un-matched opposition on physical performance and spatial exploration behavior during youth basketball matches. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249739. [PMID: 33831106 PMCID: PMC8031392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was analyze the effect of playing against biological matched and un-matched opposition, on physical performance and spatial exploration behavior of youth basketball players. Thirty under-14 to 16 basketball players were assigned to different teams according to maturity status (Pre-, Mid-, and Post-Peak Height Velocity [PHV]), and participated in basketball matches against matched (same maturity status), and un-matched (different maturity status) opposition. Maturity status was estimated considering the percentage of predicted adult height. Workload data was collected via inertial devices (IMUs) and Ultra-Wide Band (UWB)-based system. Heart rate was recorded with individual HR monitors. The Pre-PHV performed significantly more accelerations and decelerations and explored more space against matched opposition. Against un-matched opposition, the Pre-PHV presented higher average speed, body impacts, and Player Load. Both Mid- and Post-PHV covered more distance against matched opposition than against Pre-PHV. Games against Pre-PHV involved lower distance covered, average speed, Player Load, and higher accelerations and decelerations, than against Mid- and Post-PHV. The Pre-PHV athletes performed a higher number of accelerations and decelerations comparing to the Mid and Post-PHV players. Also, a significant interaction effect (group x time) was found in distance covered, average speed, body impacts, and Player Load. The type of opposition influenced physical performance and spatial exploration behavior during basketball matches, particularly of less-mature players. Based on present findings, practitioners can select the most suitable game format, considering the physical, technical, tactical, and psychological development needs, individualizing training stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Arede
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CIDESD, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- * E-mail:
| | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - David Johnson
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
- A.F.C Bournemouth, Bournemouth, United Kingdom
| | - Nuno Leite
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CIDESD, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
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Martinho DV, Coelho-E-Silva MJ, Valente-Dos-Santos J, Minderico C, Oliveira TG, Rodrigues I, Conde J, Sherar LB, Malina RM. Assessment of skeletal age in youth female soccer players: Agreement between Greulich-Pyle and Fels protocols. Am J Hum Biol 2021; 34:e23591. [PMID: 33749124 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.23591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of the study was to evaluate the agreement between the Fels and Greulich-Pyle methods for the assessment of skeletal age (SA) in female youth soccer players. METHODS The sample included 441 Portuguese players 10.08-16.73 years of age who regularly participated in organized and competitive soccer. Standardized radiographs of the left hand-wrist were obtained and analyzed by an experienced examiner. SA was estimated with the Fels and Greulich-Pyle (GP) methods. Differences between SA and chronological age (CA) were used to define skeletal maturity groups: late, average and early maturing. In addition to descriptive statistics, Cohen's kappa and Lin concordance correlation coefficients were used to evaluate agreement between methods. RESULTS Intraindividual differences in SA based on the two methods varied between 0.10 to 1.47 years among age groups with larger mean differences at older ages. Agreement of maturity classifications between methods was 74% at younger ages (under-13: kappa = 0.48; under-14: kappa = 0.39; Lin CCC = 0.68) and declined with increasing CA (under-17: 19% agreement; kappa = 0.001; Lin CCC = 0.11). About 19% of the total sample was skeletally mature with the Fels method and an SA was not assigned; in contrast, no players were skeletally mature with the GP method. CONCLUSIONS GP SAs were systematically lower than Fels SAs among female soccer players. Intraindividual variability in SAs between methods was considerable. The findings highlight the impact of method on estimates of maturity status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo V Martinho
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/dtp/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Manuel J Coelho-E-Silva
- University of Coimbra, FCDEF, Coimbra, Portugal.,University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/dtp/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João Valente-Dos-Santos
- University of Coimbra, CIDAF (uid/dtp/04213/2020), Coimbra, Portugal.,Lusófona University, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Minderico
- Lusófona University, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | | | - Jorge Conde
- Coimbra Polytechnic Institute, School of Health and Technology, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Lauren B Sherar
- Loughborough University, School of Sport Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough, UK
| | - Robert M Malina
- University of Texas, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, Austin, Texas, USA.,University of Louisville, School of Public Health and Information Sciences, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
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Light N, Johnson A, Williams S, Smith N, Hale B, Thorborg K. Injuries in youth football and the relationship to player maturation: An analysis of time-loss injuries during four seasons in an English elite male football academy. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 31:1324-1334. [PMID: 33560529 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A better insight into injuries in elite-youth football may inform prevention strategies. The purpose of this prospective cohort study was to investigate the frequency, incidence, and pattern of time-loss injuries in an elite male football academy, exploring injuries in relation to age and maturation status. Across four consecutive playing seasons, playing exposure and injuries to all academy players (U'9 to U'21) were recorded by club medical staff. Maturation status at the time of injury was also calculated for players competing in U'13 to U'16 aged squads. Time-loss injury occurrence and maturation status at time of injury were the main outcome measures. A total of 603 time-loss injuries were recorded, from 190 different players. Playing exposure was 229 317 hours resulting in an overall injury rate of 2.4 p/1000 h, ranging from 0.7 p/1000 h (U'11) to 4.8 p/1000 h (U'21). Most injuries were traumatic in mechanism (73%). The most common injury location was the thigh (23%), and the most common injury type was muscle injury (29%) combining to provide the most common injury diagnosis; thigh muscle injury (17%). In U'13-U'16 players, a higher number of injuries to early-maturing players were observed in U'13-U'14 players, while more injuries to U'15-U'16 players occurred when classed as "on-time" in maturity status. Maturation status did not statistically relate to injury pattern; however, knee bone (not-fracture) injuries peaked in U'13 players while hip/groin muscle injuries peaked in U'15 players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Light
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Adam Johnson
- Brighton and Hove Albion Football Club, Brighton, UK
| | | | - Neal Smith
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Beverley Hale
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Kristian Thorborg
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Sports Orthopedic Research Center Copenhagen (SORC-C), Copenhagen University Hospital, Amager-Hvidovre, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Helsen WF, Thomis M, Starkes JL, Vrijens S, Ooms G, MacMaster C, Towlson C. Leveling the Playing Field: A New Proposed Method to Address Relative Age- and Maturity-Related Bias in Soccer. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:635379. [PMID: 33748755 PMCID: PMC7969981 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.635379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite various solutions proposed to solve the relative age effect (RAE), it is still a major problem confounding talent identification and selection processes. In the first phase, we sampled 302 under 7-21 academy soccer players from two Belgian professional soccer clubs to explore the potential of a new approach to solve the inequalities resulting from relative age- and maturity-related bias. This approach allocates players into four discrete quartile groups based on the midway point of their chronological and estimated developmental (ED) birth dates (calculated using the growth curves for stature of Belgian youth). With the use of chi square analyses, a RAE was found (p < 0.01) for the overall sample (Q1 = 41.4% vs. Q4 = 14.9%) that completely disappeared after reallocation (Q1 = 26.5%; Q2 = 21.9%; Q3 = 27.5%; Q4 = 24.2%). According to the new allocation method, the stature difference was reduced, on average, by 11.6 cm (from 24.0 ± 9.9 to 12.4 ± 3.4 cm, d = 1.57). Body mass difference between the two methods was 1.9 kg (20.1 ± 11.3-18.2 ± 13.1 kg, respectively, d = 0.15). The new method created a maximum chronological age difference of 1.9 vs. 0.8 years for the current method. With the use of this method, 47% of the players would be reallocated. Twenty-three percent would be moved up one age category, and 21% would be moved down. In the second phase, we also examined 80 UK academy soccer players to explore if reallocating players reduces the within-playing group variation of somatic and physical fitness characteristics. The percentage coefficient of variation (%CV) was reduced (0.2-10.1%) in 15 out of 20 metrics across U11-U16 age categories, with the U13 age category demonstrating the largest reductions (0.9-10.1%) in CV. The U12 and U13 age categories and associated reallocation groupings showed trivial to small (ES = 0.0-0.5) between-method differences and trivial to moderate (ES = 0.0-1.1) differences within the U14-U16 age categories. A reduction in RAE may lead to fewer dropouts and thus a larger player pool, which benefits, in turn, talent identification, selection, and development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martine Thomis
- KU Leuven, Department of Movement Sciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Janet L. Starkes
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Sander Vrijens
- KU Leuven, Department of Movement Sciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Gerrit Ooms
- KU Leuven, Department of Movement Sciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Calum MacMaster
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
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Materne O, Chamari K, Farooq A, Weir A, Hölmich P, Bahr R, Greig M, McNaughton LR. Association of Skeletal Maturity and Injury Risk in Elite Youth Soccer Players: A 4-Season Prospective Study With Survival Analysis. Orthop J Sports Med 2021; 9:2325967121999113. [PMID: 33869641 PMCID: PMC8020116 DOI: 10.1177/2325967121999113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The association between injury risk and skeletal maturity in youth soccer has received little attention. PURPOSE To prospectively investigate injury patterns and incidence in relation to skeletal maturity in elite youth academy soccer players and to determine the injury risks associated with the skeletal maturity status, both overall and to the lower limb apophysis. STUDY DESIGN Descriptive epidemiology study. METHODS All injuries that required medical attention and led to time loss were recorded prospectively during 4 consecutive seasons in 283 unique soccer players from U-13 (12 years of age) to U-19 (18 years). The skeletal age (SA) was assessed in 454 player-seasons using the Fels method, and skeletal maturity status (SA minus chronological age) was classified as follows: late, SA >1 year behind chronological age; normal, SA ±1 year of chronological age; early, SA >1 year ahead of chronological age; and mature, SA = 18 years. An adjusted Cox regression model was used to analyze the injury risk. RESULTS A total of 1565 injuries were recorded; 60% were time-loss injuries, resulting in 17,772 days lost. Adjusted injury-free survival analysis showed a significantly greater hazard ratio (HR) for different status of skeletal maturity: early vs normal (HR = 1.26 [95% CI, 1.11-1.42]; P < .001) and early vs mature (HR = 1.35 [95% CI, 1.17-1.56]; P < .001). Players who were skeletally mature at the wrist had a substantially decreased risk of lower extremity apophyseal injuries (by 45%-61%) compared with late (P < .05), normal (P < .05), and early (P < .001) maturers. CONCLUSION Musculoskeletal injury patterns and injury risks varied depending on the players' skeletal maturity status. Early maturers had the greatest overall adjusted injury risk. Players who were already skeletally mature at the wrist had the lowest risk of lower extremity apophyseal injuries but were still vulnerable for hip and pelvis apophyseal injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Materne
- ASPETAR, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
- Aspire Health Centre, Aspire Academy, Doha, Qatar
- Rangers Football Club, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - Karim Chamari
- ASPETAR, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Adam Weir
- ASPETAR, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
- Sport Medicine and Exercise, Clinic Haarlem (SBK), Haarlem, the
Netherlands
- Department of Orthopaedics, Erasmus MC University Medical Centre,
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Per Hölmich
- ASPETAR, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
- Sports Orthopaedic Research Center, Copenhagen (SORC-C), Copenhagen
University Hospital, Amager-Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Roald Bahr
- ASPETAR, Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
- Department of Sports Medicine, Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center,
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Matt Greig
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
| | - Lars R. McNaughton
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
- Department of Sport and Movement Studies, Faculty of Health
Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
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40
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Dugdale JH, McRobert AP, Unnithan VB. "He's Just a Wee Laddie": The Relative Age Effect in Male Scottish Soccer. Front Psychol 2021; 12:633469. [PMID: 33584487 PMCID: PMC7876090 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant structural, developmental, and financial constraints exist in Scottish soccer that may predicate a different approach to talent identification and development. To our knowledge, no published reports exist evaluating the prevalence of the relative age effect (RAE) in Scottish soccer players. Consequently, the aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of the RAE among varied playing levels and ages of male Scottish youth soccer players. Birthdates of male youth players (n = 1,230) from U10 to U17 age groups and from playing levels: “Amateur” (n = 482), “Development” (n = 214), and “Performance” (n = 534), alongside a group of male Scottish senior professional players (n = 261) were recorded and categorized into quartiles (Q1 = January–March; Q2 = April–June; Q3 = July–September; and Q4 = October–December) and semesters (S1 = January–June and S2 = July–December) from the start of the selection year. Birthdates were analyzed for: (a) each playing level and (b) each age group irrespective of playing level. For the varied playing levels examined, an RAE was evident in “Development” and “Performance” playing levels only at youth level. When examining each age group, an RAE was observed in U12–U17 players only. While there was a slight asymmetry favoring Q1 born senior professional players, the RAE was not present within this group of our sample. Results from our study suggest that a bias in selecting individuals born earlier in the selection year may exist within male soccer academy structures, but not at amateur level. The asymmetry favoring chronologically older players at youth but not professional level questions the efficacy of this (un)conscious bias within male Scottish soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H Dugdale
- Physiology Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
| | - Allistair P McRobert
- The Football Exchange, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Viswanath B Unnithan
- Division of Sport and Exercise, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Hamilton, United Kingdom
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41
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Parr J, Winwood K, Hodson-Tole E, Deconinck FJA, Parry L, Hill JP, Malina RM, Cumming SP. Predicting the timing of the peak of the pubertal growth spurt in elite male youth soccer players: evaluation of methods. Ann Hum Biol 2020; 47:400-408. [PMID: 32543933 DOI: 10.1080/03014460.2020.1782989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Three commonly used non-invasive protocols are implemented to estimate the timing at which PHV most likely occurs. Accurate estimation of circumpubertal years can aid in managing training load of adolescent athletes. AIM Three protocols were compared against observed age at PHV: an estimate of 13.8 ± 1.0 years - generic age at PHV (from longitudinal measures); an estimate based on the maturity offset equation, predicted age at PHV ±1.0 year; a window of PHV based on 85-96% of predicted adult height at time of observation. SUBJECTS AND METHODS A final sample of 23 (from 28) adolescent male participants were selected from the academy of an English Premier League club. Anthropometric measures were collected across five playing seasons; age at PHV was estimated with Super-Imposition by Translation and Rotation (SITAR). The three protocols were compared based on measures at 13.0 years. Results and Conclusions: An age window based on predicted maturity offset did not improve estimation of PHV compared to generic age method; however, the percentage of predicted adult height window showed improvement in performance shown by the following results. Predicted age at PHV correctly assigned 15 participants (65%) as experiencing PHV, while the percentage height correctly assigned 17 participants (74%). Generic age and predicted age at PHV correctly predicted observed age at PHV for 14 participants (61%), percentage of adult height window correctly predicted 22 participants (96%).
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Affiliation(s)
- James Parr
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.,Manchester United Football Club, Manchester, UK
| | - Keith Winwood
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Emma Hodson-Tole
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | | | - Les Parry
- Manchester United Football Club, Manchester, UK
| | - James P Hill
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Robert M Malina
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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42
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Hill M, Spencer A, McGee D, Scott S, Frame M, Cumming SP. The psychology of bio-banding: a Vygotskian perspective. Ann Hum Biol 2020; 47:328-335. [PMID: 32674664 DOI: 10.1080/03014460.2020.1797163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Bio-banding is the process of grouping players by their maturational status rather than chronological age. It is designed to limit the impact of maturational timing on talent identification and development and expose early and late maturing players to new learning experiences and challenges. A common criticism of bio-banding is that it does not consider age related differences in psychosocial and behaviour development. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this case study is to describe how theory and research pertaining to the design and delivery of mixed-aged classrooms can be used to prepare early and late maturing players for bio-banding and optimise the benefits of this practice. METHOD After placing the players in their bio-banded groups, one Elite Premier League Academy provided bespoke group psychology sessions for early and late maturing players for six weeks. RESULTS Providing bespoke psychology sessions for players maturation age allows for the cognitive processes of both early and late maturity status to work within the zone of proximal development. CONCLUSION Pedagogical practice associated with mixed age classrooms can be used in bio-banded contexts to benefit both early and late maturing players. Delivering psychological sessions alongside bio-banding permits learning and development to both ends of the maturity spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Hill
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.,Department of Sports Science and Medicine, Southampton Football Club, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Amy Spencer
- Department of Sports Science and Medicine, Southampton Football Club, Southampton, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychology, Southampton Football Club, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Darragh McGee
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Sam Scott
- Department of Sports Science and Medicine, Southampton Football Club, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm Frame
- Department of Psychology, Southampton Football Club, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Sean P Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
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Leyhr D, Murr D, Basten L, Eichler K, Hauser T, Lüdin D, Romann M, Sardo G, Höner O. Biological Maturity Status in Elite Youth Soccer Players: A Comparison of Pragmatic Diagnostics With Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:587861. [PMID: 33345157 PMCID: PMC7739788 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.587861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The influence of biological maturity status (BMS) on talent identification and development within elite youth soccer is critically debated. During adolescence, maturity-related performance differences within the same age group may cause greater chances of being selected for early maturing players. Therefore, coaches need to consider players' BMS. While standard methods for assessing BMS in adolescents are expensive and time-consuming imaging techniques (i.e., X-ray and MRI), there also exist more pragmatic procedures. This study aimed to evaluate commonly used methods to assess BMS within a highly selected sample of youth soccer players. A total of N = 63 elite male soccer players (U12 and U14) within the German Soccer Association's talent promotion program completed a test battery assessing BMS outcomes. Utilizing MRI diagnostics, players' skeletal age (SAMRI) was determined by radiologists and served as the reference method. Further commonly used methods included skeletal age measured by an ultrasound device (SAUS), the maturity offset (MOMIR), and the percentage of adult height (PAHKR). The relation of these alternative BMS outcomes to SAMRI was examined using different perspectives: performing bivariate correlation analyses (1), modeling BMS as a latent variable (BMSlat) based on the multiple alternative diagnostics (2), and investigating individual differences in agreement (3). (1) Correlations of SAMRI and the further BMS variables ranked from r = 0.80 to r = 0.84 for the total sample and were lower for U12 (0.56 ≤ r ≤ 0.66), and U14 (0.61 ≤ r ≤ 0.74) (2). The latent structural equation modeling (SEM) (R2 = 51%) revealed a significant influence on BMSlat for MOMIR (β = 0.51, p <0.05). The additional contribution of PAHKR (β = 0.27, p = 0.06) and SAUS (β = −0.03, p = 0.90) was rather small (3). The investigation of individual differences between the reference method and alternative diagnostics indicated a significant bias for MOMIR (p <0.01). The results support the use of economical and time-efficient methods for assessing BMS within elite youth soccer. Bivariate correlation analyses as well as the multivariate latent variable approach highlight the measures' usefulness. However, the observed individual level differences for some of the utilized procedures led to the recommendation for practitioners to use at least two alternative assessment methods in order to receive more reliable information about players' BMS within the talent promotion process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Leyhr
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Methods Center, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dennis Murr
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lajos Basten
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Goethe-University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Katrin Eichler
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Goethe-University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | - Dennis Lüdin
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Department of Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Department of Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Giuseppe Sardo
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Deutscher Fußball-Bund, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Oliver Höner
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Salter J, De Ste Croix MBA, Hughes JD. The moderating impact of maturation on acute neuromuscular and psycho-physiological responses to simulated soccer activity in academy soccer players. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:1637-1647. [PMID: 33315522 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1851775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractResource constraints complicate load monitoring practices in some academies, which is problematic based on load-injury associations surrounding periods of rapid non-linear growth. Limited research has explored relationships between maturation and perceived psycho-physiological response to activity and associated neuromuscular performance changes. This study aimed to quantify neuromuscular and psycho-physiological responses to standardised activity and analyse whether dose-responses were moderated by maturation. Fifty-seven male soccer players (age: 14.1 ± 0.9 years; stature: 165 ± 10 cm; body mass, 57 ± 9 kg; percentage of predicted adult height 92.7 ± 5%) from two Elite Player Performance Plan (EPPP) academies completed the youth soccer-specific aerobic fitness test (Y-SAFT60). Countermovement jump (CMJ), reactive strength index (RSI), absolute (ABS) and relative leg stiffness (REL) were measured pre-post the Y-SAFT60 with playerload (PL), heart rate (HR), total distance (TDist) and differential ratings of perceived exertion (dRPE) used as markers of load and intensity. A moderation model was employed to analyse interactions of maturation as a continuous variable. Analysis indicated no significant interaction (p <0.05) between maturation and neuromuscular performance but RPE-Technical demonstrated significant interactions (p = 0.01). Slope analysis indicated four variables (PL, RSI, ABS and REL) that demonstrated significance at various stages of maturation, most notably aligning with peak height velocity (∼87-96% PAH). Tentatively, we propose that maturational developments in the neuromuscular system offer some mechanistic explanation to the varied dose-responses observed. It is therefore important that maturation is habitually considered within prescription of training programmes and that further empirical studies are completed to determine maturity specific dose-responses.Highlights Components of both neuromuscular performance and psycho-physiological response to simulated soccer was influenced by maturity status.Individuals more biologically developed are more capable of 'coping' with the biomechanical load of simulated soccer activity resulting in more favourable neuromuscular responses.The period surrounding peak height velocity appears to influence whole body load-response pathways resulting in altered movement patterns during this period.To minimise the impact of maturity status, practitioners can restrict activities that elicit high biomechanical load and introduce biologically categorised training activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Salter
- School of Sport, York St John University, York, UK.,School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
| | | | - Jonathan D Hughes
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
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45
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Kelly A, Wilson MR, Jackson DT, Goldman DE, Turnnidge J, Côté J, Williams CA. A multidisciplinary investigation into "playing-up" in academy football according to age phase. J Sports Sci 2020; 39:854-864. [PMID: 33203302 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1848117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to facilitate more appropriate levels of challenge, a common practice in academy football is to play-up talented youth players with chronologically older peers. However, the context of playing-up in academy football is yet to be empirically explored. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the multidimensional factors that differentiated players who play-up from those who do not. Ninety-eight participants from a single football academy were examined within their age phase: Foundation Development Phase (FDP; under-9 to under-11; n = 40) and Youth Development Phase (YDP; under-12 to under-16; n = 58). Drawing upon the FA Four Corner Model, 27 factors relating to Technical/Tactical, Physical, Psychological, and Social development were assessed. Following MANOVA analysis within both the FDP and YDP, significant differences were observed for Technical/Tactical and Social sub-components (P < 0.05). Further differences were observed for Physical and Psychological sub-components (P < 0.05) within the YDP. In sum, Technical/Tactical and Social characteristics appeared to differentiate those who play-up compared to those who do not within the FDP. In the YDP however, there were measures representing all sub-components from the FA Four Corner Model. Subsequently, it is suggested coaches and practitioners consider these holistic factors when playing-up youth football players within relevant age-phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Kelly
- Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK.,College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Mark R Wilson
- College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Daniel T Jackson
- Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Daniel E Goldman
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Jennifer Turnnidge
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Jean Côté
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Craig A Williams
- College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
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Kelly AL, Jackson DT, Taylor JJ, Jeffreys MA, Turnnidge J. "Birthday-Banding" as a Strategy to Moderate the Relative Age Effect: A Case Study Into the England Squash Talent Pathway. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:573890. [PMID: 33345136 PMCID: PMC7739587 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.573890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The relative age effect (RAE) is almost pervasive throughout youth sports, whereby relatively older athletes are consistently overrepresented compared to their relatively younger peers. Although researchers regularly cite the need for sports programs to incorporate strategies to moderate the RAE, organizational structures often continue to adopt a one-dimensional (bi)annual-age group approach. In an effort to combat this issue, England Squash implemented a “birthday-banding” strategy in its talent pathway, whereby young athletes move up to their next age group on their birthday, with the aim to remove particular selection time points and fixed chronological bandings. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the potential effects of the birthday-banding strategy on birth quarter (BQ) distributions throughout the England Squash talent pathway. Three mixed-gender groups were populated and analyzed: (a) ASPIRE athletes (n = 250), (b) Development and Potential athletes (n = 52), and (c) Senior team and Academy athletes (n = 26). Chi-square analysis and odds ratios were used to test BQ distributions against national norms and between quartiles, respectively. Results reveal no significant difference between BQ distributions within all three groups (P > 0.05). In contrast to most studies examining the RAE within athlete development settings, there appears to be no RAE throughout the England Squash talent pathway. These findings suggest that the birthday-banding strategy may be a useful tool to moderate RAE in youth sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Kelly
- Department of Sport and Exercise, Research Centre for Life and Sport Sciences (CLaSS), Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel T Jackson
- Department of Sport and Exercise, Research Centre for Life and Sport Sciences (CLaSS), Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Josh J Taylor
- Independent Researcher, National Squash Centre, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A Jeffreys
- Department of Sport and Exercise, Research Centre for Life and Sport Sciences (CLaSS), Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom.,Independent Researcher, National Squash Centre, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Turnnidge
- PLAYS Research Group, School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Olivares LAF, De León LG, Fragoso MI. Skeletal age prediction model from percentage of adult height in children and adolescents. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15768. [PMID: 32978456 PMCID: PMC7519670 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72835-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal age (SA) is considered the gold standard to assess the degree of maturation and has been widely used in sports, education and public health areas; however, it requires sophisticated equipment and well-trained technicians. Therefore, it is important to develop non-invasive methods for its evaluation. The aim was to develop an equation to predict SA using the percentage of adult height. SA was measured by Tanner-Whitehouse-3 method, and the percentage of adult height was estimated by two methodologies: Tanner-Whitehouse-3 method (P-TW3) and Khamis-Roche method (P-KR) using 839 schoolchildren of both sexes. Linear regression was used for predicting SA from P-TW3; then P-TW3 was replaced in the equation for P-KR value. Bland-Altman graphs, interclass correlation coefficient and Kappa index were used as validation tests. Model showed a SA predictive capacity of 93.2% in boys and 96.8% in girls. The average differences between SA measured and SA predicted by P-TW3 was 0.0504 (± 0.664) in boys and 0.0144 (± 0.435) in girls (P = 0.229 and 0.667, respectively). When P-TW3 was replaced for P-KR value in the equation, the average differences were - 0.0532 in boys and 0.0850 in girls (P = 0.509 and 0.167 respectively). The present model, based on the percentage of adult height, showed an adequate estimation of SA in children and adolescents and it can be used in the absence of bone X-ray equipment, in healthy boys aged 9 to 15 and girls 8 to 13.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lidia G De León
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Cultura Física, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México
| | - Maria Isabel Fragoso
- Laboratory of Physiology and Biochemistry Exercise, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-002, Cruz-Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal.
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Kelly AL, Williams CA. Physical Characteristics and the Talent Identification and Development Processes in Male Youth Soccer: A Narrative Review. Strength Cond J 2020. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Williams AM, Ford PR, Drust B. Talent identification and development in soccer since the millennium. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:1199-1210. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1766647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Mark Williams
- Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA
| | - Paul R. Ford
- School of Sport and Service Management, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
| | - Barry Drust
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Are European Soccer Players Worth More If They Are Born Early in the Year? Relative Age Effect on Player Market Value. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17093301. [PMID: 32397413 PMCID: PMC7246739 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17093301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The relative age effect (RAE) consists of the lower presence of members of an age group born in the months furthest from the age cut-off date established. In youth soccer, it is known that because of this effect the birth dates of more players in a team are closer to the cutoff of 1 January. These older players, due to their physical and psychological advantages, are more likely to be identified as talent. This study aimed to examine whether RAE can be identified in professional players of the top five European soccer leagues (Spain, Italy, England, Germany, and France) and to assess its influence on the perceived market value of the players. Market value data for 2577 players were obtained from the Transfermarkt database. A significant RAE was produced in all leagues (p < 0.05). However, this bias did not affect the market value of the professional elite soccer players examined here. Our observations indicate that, while the identification and promotion of talent at young ages are often biased by RAE, once players have reached the professional stage, the market value assigned to them is based more on factors other than their date of birth.
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