Childbirth as a forthcoming traumatic event: pretraumatic stress disorder during pregnancy and its psychological correlates

The relationship between self-compassion and fear of childbirth in pregnant women with gestational diabetes

BACKGROUND

Fear of natural childbirth has become a common concern among women. One of the most important risk factors for fear of childbirth is gestational diabetes. The present study aimed to determine the relationship between self-compassion and fear of childbirth in pregnant women with gestational diabetes.

METHOD

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 75 primiparous pregnant women with gestational diabetes referred to health centers in Kermanshah city, Iran in 2023, who were selected through multi-stage random sampling. Data collection was performed from May to October 2023. Data were collected using a demographic form, the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire Version A and the Self-Compassion Scale, and were analyzed using SPSS version 25 with Kruskal Wallis test, ANOVA, Spearman's correlation coefficient, and the multiple linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

The mean fear of childbirth score in pregnant women with diabetes was 89.77 ± 32.99. 7 participants (9.3%) had moderate fear (score 38-65), 12 participants (16%) had severe fear (score 66-84), and 47 participants (62.7%) had clinical fear (score 85 or higher) of childbirth. According to the study results, there was a significant negative correlation between the total fear of childbirth score and the total self-compassion score, as well as its subscales including self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated a significant negative relationship between fear of childbirth and self-compassion. Therefore, specific interventions or training for providers to help women build self-compassion, and culturally tailored interventions are recommended.

A systematic review on the assessment of pregnancy-specific psychological trauma during pregnancy: A call to action

Objective

Psychological trauma negatively impacts maternal and infant health during the perinatal period. A history of traumatic experiences related to previous pregnancies and births (termed pregnancy-specific psychological trauma or PSPT) increases the risk of a host of psychological disorders. It can impede women's/the pregnant individual's relationship with the healthcare system and their developing child. There are, however, no guidelines or agreed-upon validated screening measures to assess PSPT during the perinatal period. To build a knowledge base to develop future measure(s) of PSPT, we conducted a systematic review to understand how and when PSPT has been measured during pregnancy.

Data sources

Searches were run in July 2021 on the following databases: Ovid MEDLINE (In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations and Ovid MEDLINE 1946 to Present), Ovid EMBASE (1974 to present), Scopus, Web of Science, PsycInfo, and Cochrane. Updated searches and reference searching/snow-balling were conducted in September 2023.

Study eligibility criteria

The search strategy included all appropriate controlled vocabulary and keywords for psychological trauma and pregnancy.

Methods

This systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Two independent researchers screened abstracts and, subsequently, full-texts of abstracts for appropriateness, with conflicts resolved via a third independent reviewer. A secondary analysis was performed on studies measuring PSPT during pregnancy.

Results

Of the 576 studies examining psychological trauma in pregnancy, only 15.8% (n=91) had a measure of PSPT. Of these 91 studies, 53 used a measure designed by the research team to assess PSPT. Critically, none of the measurements used screened for PSPT comprehensively.

Conclusion

It is time to screen for and study PSPT in all perinatal individuals. Recognition of PSPT should promote trauma-informed care delivery by obstetrics and neonatology/pediatric teams during the perinatal period.

Gender characteristics, social determinants, and seasonal patterns of malaria incidence, relapse, and mortality in Sistan and Baluchistan province and other province of Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Malaria is a climate-dependent disease influenced by gender, social determination, seasonal patterns, and relapse incidence This study reviews these characteristics of malaria in the Sistan and Baluchistan (S&B) province and another province of Iran.

METHODS

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted through systematic and manual searches in electronic databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and the Scientific Information Database. Studies from the S&B province, published from 1990 to 2024, written in Farsi and English, and reporting incidence, relapse, or death were included in this study. The quality of the studies was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.

RESULTS

Out of 1941 studies initially identified, 43 were included in the systematic review, with 12 studies on relapse and 43 on incidence included in the meta-analysis. The combined results of the 43 primary studies using the random effect model showed that the frequency of malaria among infected women is 32% in S&B, 22% in other parts of Iran and 24% in the whole of Iran. This is 68%, 77% and 75% in men respectively. Among the primary studies, 8 deaths were reported in two studies, all of which were men. The incidence rate of malaria relapse varied from 0.30% to 46%. Based on the random effect model, the malaria relapse rate in Iran was estimated at 9%. The highest incidence of malaria in Iran was between spring and summer, and the lowest incidence was winter and spring. Most studies showed a downward trend in malaria incidence of malaria between 1986 to 2019. In term of socio-demographic status, malaria was more common in rural areas (82%). Although 28% were employed, and in term of age, young and old individuals (15 to 50 years) had the highest rate of infection.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review and meta-analysis revealed a lower incidence of malaria in women compared to men. The findings highlight the need for health care and the importance of targeted malaria control interventions, especially for men, rural areas, hot weather conditions, and young to middle-aged age groups, particularly in the S&B province.

People experience similar intrusions about past and future autobiographical negative experiences

We know much about people's problematic reactions-such as distressing intrusions-to negative, stressful, or traumatic past events. But emerging evidence suggests people react similarly to negative and potentially-traumatic future events. Given similar processes underlie remembering the past and imagining the future more generally, we wondered how similar involuntary memories, or intrusions, are for experienced vs. anticipated events. We focused primarily on intrusions because they are a transdiagnostic reaction to traumatic events. We asked subjects to report either a very stressful event they had experienced in the past 6 months, or one they anticipated they could experience in the next 6 months. We measured the frequency of intrusions about these reported events, and intrusions' phenomenological characteristics (such as emotional intensity), negative appraisals about their meaning, and reactions to them more generally. Overall, we found intrusions about experienced vs. anticipated autobiographical events were similarly troubling. This pattern supports the idea that anticipating the future can be aversive and elicit post-traumatic-stress-like symptoms, just as remembering the past can. Our findings have implications for theoretical models of traumatic-stress and treatment of traumatic-stress symptoms.

Childbirth as an anticipated trauma during pregnancy: pretraumatic stress symptoms in primiparous women

INTRODUCTION

Women can develop anticipated traumatic reactions related to the forthcoming delivery through "pretraumatic stress" symptoms. The present study aims at: a) exploring the frequency of probable pretraumatic stress disorder in primiparous pregnant women, b) evidencing associated features of pretraumatic stress symptoms and c) exploring which specific components of antenatal anxiety are associated with pretraumatic stress symptoms.

METHODS

A sample of 100 primiparous pregnant women completed an online questionnaire assessing pretraumatic stress, fear of childbirth, depressive and anxiety symptoms. Socio-demographic and pregnancy-related data were also gathered.

RESULTS

8 % of women met all criteria for probable pretraumatic stress disorder. Increased depressive symptoms (ß = 0.48, p< .05), childbirth concerns (ß = 0.47, p< .05) and worry about self (ß = 0.74; p< .05) were associated with the intensity of pretraumatic stress disorder symptoms.

CONCLUSION

This study contributes to the very limited literature on pretraumatic stress symptoms. Thus, it is noteworthy that pretraumatic stress is not a reactivation of a former postpartum PTSD or associated with a prior negative experience of childbirth. Future studies conducted on primiparous women with no history of traumatic exposure could allow to provide additional evidences of the existence of anticipated traumatic reactions of childbirth.

The Effect of Labor Dance in the First Stage of Labor on Labor Pain, Anxiety, Duration of Labor, and Maternal Satisfaction with Labor: A Randomized Controlled Study

Objective: The study aimed to examine the effects of labor dance applied in the first stage of labor on perceived labor pain, anxiety, duration of labor, and maternal satisfaction with labor. Design: This study is a randomized controlled trial. Methods: A sample size of 128 pregnant women was randomly assigned to a control (n = 64) or experimental (n = 64) group while ensuring equal numbers of primiparous and multiparous participants in each group. After admission to the hospital for parturition, and during the first stage of labor, the women in the experimental group were exposed to a 15-min labor dance every hour when the cervical dilation was between 3 and 8 cm. The labor dance included movements of the sacrum and waist massaged by a partner using a massage glove, which was accompanied by self-selected music. Outcome measures included the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), the State Anxiety Scale (SAS), and the Scale for Measuring Maternal Satisfaction (SMMS)-normal birth and labor duration. These were administered before the labor dance and at the end of the labor dance at three points of cervical dilation: 3, 5-6, and 7-8 cm for the experimental group, and at similar points in the control group: at the start of dilation and 15 min later. The data were analyzed using the generalized linear model and Mann-Whitney U tests. Results: In comparison to the control group, for the group performing the labor dance, the mean VAS scores were lower (p < 0.05) at each evaluation period, and the mean scores of total SMMS and some of its subdivisions were significantly higher in the experimental group (p < 0.05). There was no statistically significant difference between the SAS scores at any evaluation point, including postpartum (p > 0.05). Similarly, there were no significant differences in labor time (p > 0.05) between groups. Conclusions: The practice of labor dance was found to be effective in reducing the perceived labor pain in pregnant women and increasing maternal satisfaction at birth, but not on the duration of labor, and anxiety. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04746170).

Predictors of pretraumatic stress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland

BACKGROUND

Pretraumatic stress has the same symptoms as post-traumatic stress but instead pertains to anticipated threats. There is evidence that pretraumatic stress occurs among soldiers and pregnant people.

OBJECTIVE

We analyzed correlates of pretraumatic stress concerning the threat of COVID-19 infection.

METHOD

Our pilot study was cross-sectional (N = 74); our main study was longitudinal and consisted of three waves (N = 1067, N = 894, and N = 752 for Waves 1, 2, and 3, respectively). Our pilot study used correlation and multiple linear regression. Our main study used quadratic regression and a random intercept cross-lagged panel model.

RESULTS

The pilot study found that pretraumatic stress was positively correlated with agreeableness (r = .24, p < .01) and negatively correlated with emotional stability (r = -.30, p < .01) and intellect/imagination (r = -.37, p < .01). The main study demonstrated that pretraumatic stress was positively correlated with other measures of mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic and with perceived positive aspects of the pandemic (r = .11, p < .01). There is evidence of a U-shaped relationship between pretraumatic stress and perceived positive aspects of the pandemic. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model analysis demonstrated that pretraumatic stress in Wave 2 was negatively predicted by levels of prosocial behavior in Wave 1 (B = -1.130, p < .01).

CONCLUSION

Mental health professionals should take into account pretraumatic stress, not only as a possible consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak but more generally as a risk in situations that are new, difficult, and challenging for people.

Psychometric properties of the Greek Version of the Traumatic Event Scale (TES) (Version A) among low-risk pregnant women

BACKGROUND

The Traumatic Event Scale (TES) is one of the most often used instruments for the assessment of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomatology during pregnancy which is linked with adverse effects. The aim of the study was to assess the psychometric properties of the TES (version A) in a sample of Greek pregnant women.

METHODS

Two hundred one low risk pregnant women in their second or third trimester were invited to participate in the study. Participants completed a number of questionnaires including the Greek versions of TES-A, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced (Brief COPE), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted in order to test how well the already TES-A five-factor model fits the data from Greece.

RESULTS

Participants' average age was 34.2 years (SD = 4.3 years). Through CFA the already five-factor structure of the TES-A (Anticipation of trauma, Intrusion, Avoidance, Resignation, Hyperstimulation) was applied to our sample. All five factors were significantly and positively correlated with each other. All Cronbach's alpha were over 0.7, indicating acceptable reliability of the factors. Relatively convergent validity, all factors of the Greek version of the TES-A were significantly associated with stress, anxiety, depression and coping strategies.

CONCLUSION

The Greek version of TES-A is detected to be a valid and reliable instrument of prenatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomatology among low-risk Greek pregnant women.

The incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder following traumatic childbirth: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Although birth trauma may be a risk factor for postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), no systematic review regarding the incidence of postpartum PTSD in women with traumatic childbirth has been reported.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the incidence of PTSD in women following traumatic childbirth by systematically reviewing and synthesizing all available evidence.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Six databases were searched using a combination of related terms for birth trauma and PTSD.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Cohort and cross-sectional studies that were related to traumatic childbirth and PTSD were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently screened potentially relevant studies and extracted key data elements. A series of meta-analyses were conducted using STATA 17.0 software, with pooled incidence rates estimated using random effects models.

MAIN RESULTS

A total of nine studies were included in this study. The pooled incidence of PTSD after traumatic childbirth was 19.4% (95% confidence interval 11.9%-26.5%). The incidence of PTSD varied with the scales used to assess traumatic birth and PTSD, evaluation times of PTSD after childbirth, and types of study participants.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of PTSD in women with traumatic childbirth is about 19%, higher than the general obstetric population, suggesting that trauma-related care for them should be enhanced.

Climate Change Related Depression, Anxiety and Stress Symptoms Perceived by Medical Students

Climate change has drastic consequences on human physical and mental health. However, research on the psychological effects of climate change awareness is still inconclusive. To examine the mental burden posed by climate change awareness and potential resilience factors, n = 203 medical students were surveyed about their awareness of the implications of climate change. Furthermore, well-established mental health questionnaires (PHQ-9, GAD-7, PTSS-10, PSQ-20) were presented twice, in their original form and in a modified version to specifically ask about the respective psychological burden regarding climate change. For identification of potential resilience factors, measures for attachment style (RQ), structural abilities (OPD-SF), and sense of coherence (SOC-13) were used. The results of our study suggest that medical students in Germany have an increased risk to suffer from mental health problems and predominantly experience significant perceived stress in regard to climate change. However, the reported stress does not yet translate into depressive, anxious, or traumatic symptoms. Climate-related perceived stress correlates negatively with potential resilience factors preventing the development of mental disorders such as attachment style, structural abilities, and sense of coherence.

Prevalence and determinants of mental health related to climate change in Australia

AIMS

The climate emergency will likely prove this century's greatest threat to public health within which mental health effects need consideration. While studies consistently show the majority of Australians are very concerned about the impacts of climate change, there is limited evidence from nation-wide research linking climate change with mental health burden in sub-populations. This study aimed to understand the impact of climate change on mental health in the Australian population and identify populations who are most at risk of climate-related mental health burden.

METHODS

A nation-wide Australian survey conducted between August and November 2020 of adults was approximately representative across sex, age, location, state and area disadvantage. Two-stage recruitment involved unrestricted self-selected community sample through mainstream and social media (N = 4428) and purposeful sampling using an online panel (N = 1055).

RESULTS

Most Australians report having a direct experience of a climate change-related event. Young people are experiencing significant rates of eco-anxiety. One in four people with direct experience of a climate change-related event met post-traumatic stress disorder screening criteria. People who have not had a direct experience are showing symptoms of pre-trauma, particularly in younger age groups and women. There were 9.37% (503/5370) of respondents with responses indicating significant eco-anxiety, 15.68% (370/2359) with pre-traumatic stress and 25.60% (727/2840) with post-traumatic stress disorder. Multivariable regressions confirmed that younger people are more affected by eco-anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (pre- or post-trauma); women are more affected by post-traumatic stress disorder (pre- or post-trauma) and those from more disadvantaged regions are more affected by eco-anxiety.

CONCLUSION

Australia is facing a potential mental health crisis. Individuals with and without direct experience of climate change are reporting significant mental health impacts, with younger age groups being disproportionately affected. There are key roles for clinicians and other health professionals in responding to and preventing climate-related mental health burden.

Women's experiences of birth trauma: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

A high number of Australian women report experiencing traumatic birth events. Despite high incidence and potential wide spread and long-lasting effects, birth trauma is poorly recognised and insufficiently treated. Birth trauma can trigger ongoing psychosocial symptoms for women, including anxiety, tokophobia, bonding difficulties, relationship issues and PTSD. Additionally, women's future fertility choices can be inhibited by birth trauma.

AIM

To summarize the existing literature to provide insight into women's experiences of birth trauma unrelated to a specific pre-existing obstetric or contextual factor.

METHODS

The review follows 5 stages of Arksey and O'Malley's framework. 7 databases were searched using indexed terms and boolen operators. Data searching identified 1354 records, 5 studies met inclusion criteria.

FINDINGS

Three key themes emerged; (1) health care providers and the maternity care system. (2) Women's sense of knowing and control. (3) Support.

DISCUSSION

Continuity of carer creates the foundations for facilitative interactions between care provider and woman which increases the likelihood of a positive birth experience. Women are able to gain a sense of feeling informed and being in control when empowering and individualized care is offered. Functional social supports and forms of debriefing promotes psychological processing and can enable post traumatic growth.

CONCLUSION

Existing literature highlights how birth trauma is strongly influenced by negative health care provider interactions and dysfunctional operation of the maternity care system. A lack of education and support limited informed decision-making, resulting in feelings of losing control and powerlessness which contributes to women's trauma. Insufficient support further compounds women's experiences.

Reconsidering fear of birth: Language matters

Interest in fear of childbirth has grown exponentially since the 1980s, but the landscape of birth has shifted considerably since then, with evolving feminism; moving from a patriarchal environment in a biomedical model of care to a holistic model which recognizes the birth and sexuality rights of women and birthing people. Distinguishing the spectrum of fear from low to high and severe is important rather than aggregating all individuals with fear of childbirth. However, the terms 'fear of childbirth' and 'tocophobia' have been used interchangeably. In this paper we urge clinicians to use the term 'tocophobia' with caution since it may be construed negatively and there is a limited understanding of the underpinning aetiology of tocophobia. Furthermore, using the label may be disempowering for women and birthing people making decisions about their birth. Further research is warranted to better understand the experience, refine and define the issue and meet the individual needs of people with fear of childbirth and tocophobia.

Fear of childbirth during pregnancy: associations with observed mother-infant interactions and perceived bonding

Fear of childbirth (FOC) is a common phenomenon that can impair functioning in pregnancy but potential longer term implications for the mother-infant relationship are little understood. This study was aimed at investigating postpartum implications of FOC on the mother-infant relationship. A UK sample of 341 women in a community setting provided data on anxiety, mood and FOC in mid-pregnancy and subsequently completed self-report measures of postnatal bonding in a longitudinal cohort study. Postnatal observations of mother-infant interactions were collected and rated for a subset of 141 women. FOC was associated with maternal perception of impaired bonding, even after controlling for sociodemographic factors, concurrent depression and the presence of anxiety disorders (Coef = 0.10, 95% CI 0.07-0.14, p < 0.001). Observed mother-infant interactions were not associated with FOC (Coef = -0.01-0.03 CI - 0.02 to 0.02, p = 0.46), weakly with concurrent depression (Coef = - 0.10, CI - 0.19 to 0.00, p = 0.06) and not associated with anxiety disorders. The self-efficacy component of FOC was most strongly associated with lower reported bonding (Coef 0.37, 95% CI 0.25-0.49, p < 0.001) FOC makes a distinct contribution to perceived postpartum bonding difficulties but observed mother-infant interaction quality was not affected. This may be due to low self-efficacy impacting psychological adjustment during pregnancy. Targeted interventions during pregnancy focusing both on treatment of key childbirth fears and bonding could help women adjust earlier.

Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor

The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants (N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 “exposure” (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of “worst” experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress.

Investigating fear of childbirth in pregnant women and its relationship between anxiety sensitivity and somatosensory amplification

The causes of fear of childbirth and the factors that affect it are not fully explained. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between fear of childbirth in pregnant women and anxiety sensitivity and somatosensory amplification. The study included 100 healthy pregnant women who were admitted to the Obstetrics and Gynaecology Department of a tertiary hospital in Turkey at 28-40 weeks of gestation. Sociodemographic Data Form, Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), Somatosensory Amplification Scale (SSAS), Spielberger State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Wijma Expectancy/Experience Scale (W-DEQ) were applied to all cases. The mean age of the pregnant women included in the study was 29.20 ± 6.17 years, and 82% of them had high fear of childbirth. It was determined that factors such as age, education status, occupation, prior pregnancy experience, the number of pregnancies, miscarriage history, and abortion experience had no significant effect on the fear of childbirth. It was observed that there was a weak positive correlation between the fear of childbirth and the anxiety sensitivity and the amplification of somatosensory symptoms. According to the findings of our study, as the fear of childbirth increases, anxiety sensitivity, and somatosensory amplification increase. For this reason, it is crucial to carefully monitor prenatal anxiety, somatosensory amplification and the fear of childbirth of pregnant women with state-related concerns.IMPACT STATEMENTWhat is already known on this subject? Fear of childbirth or what is historically referred to as tokophobia is generally defined as a fear of severe birth and fear of pathological birth. The causes of fear of childbirth are stated as biological reasons, psychological reasons and lack of social support. However, it is not possible to explain the causes of the fear of childbirth in pregnant women and the risk factors affecting them. Similarly, fear of childbirth in individuals with anxiety sensitivity and amplification of somatosensory symptoms has not been adequately investigated.What do the results of this study add? In this study, we aimed to contribute to the related literature by examining the relationship between fear of childbirth in pregnant women and anxiety sensitivity and amplification of somatosensory symptoms. It was observed that there was a weak positive correlation between the fear of childbirth and the sensitivity of anxiety and the amplification of somatosensory symptoms. According to the findings of our study, as the fear of childbirth increases, anxiety sensitivity, and somatosensory amplification increase.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? For this reason, it is crucial to carefully monitor the pregnants who have prenatal anxiety sensitivity, somatosensory amplification, and state-continuous anxiety. Due to insufficient number of studies related to the subject, extensive sample studies on the subject are needed.

Spontaneous future cognitions: an integrative review

Spontaneous future cognitions refer to mental representations about the future that enter consciousness with no immediately preceding attempt of bringing them to mind. They are studied under different terms in several areas of psychology, but with little interdisciplinary exchange of findings and theoretical developments. Different conceptions of spontaneous future cognition derive from separate literatures and are rarely considered together, leaving their potential conceptual overlaps as well as their unique features unclarified. In this article, I review research on spontaneous future cognitions in relation to mind wandering, involuntary episodic future thoughts, and intrusive future imagery in cravings and clinical disorders. I conclude that more research is needed to clarify the potential functions served by spontaneous future cognitions in everyday life, under which conditions they may become dysfunctional, how they are triggered by situational cues, and how their content may be constrained by motivational factors and beliefs. The burgeoning field of spontaneous future cognitions forms a promising novel approach to the cognitive and motivational regulation of behavior in everyday life.