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Blokland MH, van Tricht FE, Groot MJ, Van Ginkel LA, Sterk SS. Discrimination between the exogenous and endogenous origin of thiouracil in farm animals, the final chapter? Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:2077-2090. [PMID: 34477489 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1967463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Thiouracil (2-thiouracil) is a thyreostatic compound that can be used as an illegal growth promoter. In bovine, porcine and other farm animals, low concentrations of thiouracil are detected in urine. There is much debate on which concentrations can be considered to originate from feed ('natural') and which concentrations are caused by the illegal administration of thiouracil for growth-promoting purposes. Currently, a threshold value of 10 µg/L in urine is applied. The threshold value is based on epidemiological data. Data on thiouracil from animals treated with thiouracil is scarce. We conducted a study whereby animals were fed with rapeseed, rapeseed with thiouracil, or regular feed with thiouracil (low and high concentration). It was determined that administration of thiouracil leads to concentrations higher than the current 10 µg/L threshold of thiouracil and its metabolites in urine during treatment. Animals fed with rapeseed showed higher thiouracil concentrations than the control group, mostly above 10 µg/L and in some cases above 30 µg/L. In the discovery study, several biomarkers for thiouracil treatment were tentatively identified and confirmed with reference standards. One metabolite was identified as indicative for thiouracil abuse, namely 6-methyl-thiouracil. Another metabolite, 4-thiouracil, was indicative for endogenous formation and did not increase during 2-thiouracil treatment. 6-Methyl-thiouracil was not found in urine samples from the Dutch routine control programmes that contained (endogenous) 2-thiouracil above the threshold value. However, 4-thiouracil was found at high concentrations in the same samples when 2-thiouracil was present. This study's overall conclusion is that the threshold value for thiouracil in bovine urine samples should be set at 10 µg/L and for porcine urine samples at 30 µg/L. Also, confirmation of 6-methyl-thiouracil and 4-thiouracil should be used as indicators for exogenous or endogenous origin in routine control monitoring programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco H Blokland
- Growth Promoters, Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Part of Wageningen University & Research, European Union Reference Laboratory for Residues, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Frederike E van Tricht
- Growth Promoters, Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Part of Wageningen University & Research, European Union Reference Laboratory for Residues, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria J Groot
- Growth Promoters, Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Part of Wageningen University & Research, European Union Reference Laboratory for Residues, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leendert A Van Ginkel
- Growth Promoters, Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Part of Wageningen University & Research, European Union Reference Laboratory for Residues, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia S Sterk
- Growth Promoters, Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Part of Wageningen University & Research, European Union Reference Laboratory for Residues, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Koutsoumanis K, Allende A, Alvarez‐Ordóñez A, Bolton D, Bover‐Cid S, Chemaly M, Davies R, De Cesare A, Herman L, Lindqvist R, Nauta M, Peixe L, Ru G, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Suffredini E, Sánchez JÁ, Blagojevic B, Fürst P, Garin‐Bastuji B, Jensen HE, Paulsen P, Baert K, Barrucci F, Broglia A, Georgiadis M, Hempen M, Hilbert F. Evaluation of public and animal health risks in case of a delayed post-mortem inspection in ungulates. EFSA J 2020; 18:e06307. [PMID: 33304413 PMCID: PMC7716243 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential effects of a 24 or 72-h delay in post-mortem inspection (PMI) of ungulates on public health and monitoring of animal health and welfare was evaluated. The assessment used a survey of meat inspectors, expert opinion, literature search and a stochastic model for Salmonella detection sensitivity. Disease detection sensitivity at a delayed PMI is expected to reduce detection sensitivity to a variable extent, depending on the hazard and on the signs/lesions and organs involved. No reduction is expected for Trichinella detection in meat from susceptible animal species and any decrease in detection of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) will not exceed the current tolerance for fallen stock. A 24-h delay in PMI could result in a small reduction in sensitivity of detection for tuberculosis, echinococcosis and cysticercosis. A greater reduction is expected for the detection of pyaemia and Rift valley fever. For the detection of Salmonella, the median model estimates are a reduction of sensitivity of 66.5% (90% probability interval (PI) 0.08-99.75%) after 24-h delay and 94% (90% PI 0.83-100%) after 72-h delay of PMI. Laboratory testing for tuberculosis following a sampling delay of 24-72 h could result in no, or a moderate, decrease in detection depending on the method of confirmation used (PCR, culture, histopathology). For chemical contaminants, a delay in meat inspection of 24 or 72 h is expected to have no impact on the effectiveness of detection of persistent organic pollutants and metals. However, for certain pharmacologically active substances, there will be a reduced effectiveness to detect some of these substances due to potential degradation in the available matrices (tissues and organs) and the non-availability of specific preferred matrices of choice.
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Woźniak B, Witek S, Matraszek-Żuchowska I, Sell B, Posyniak A. The effect of diet enriched with rapeseed meal on endogenous thiouracil contents in urine of calves. Res Vet Sci 2020; 136:192-197. [PMID: 33684792 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Thiouracil (TU) is a representative of a group of thyreostatics, orally active drugs that can be used to increase the weight of cattle before slaughter. The use of thyreostats in animal production has been banned in the European Union since 1981. Systematic detection of low concentrations of thiouracil in the urine of livestock is acknowledged to be of endogenous origin due to the use of Brassicaceae plants in the animal diet. The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of diet enriched with rapeseed meal on endogenous thiouracil contents in urine of calves. Two groups of calves of different age were subjected to a rapeseed-supplemented diet. First group (n = 6, 6 months) received a maximum authorized content of rapeseed meal (30%) in diet, second (n = 2, 2 months) after adaptation to solid food and rapeseed, has been subjected to a diet exceeding the maximum recommended dose of rapeseed of 10%. During the experiments, samples of urine and faeces were collected and analyzed by using the accredited LC-MS/MS method. The diet with allowed content of rapeseed did not influenced on concentration of endogenous thiouracil in calves' urine (<CCα - 3.11 μg/L), while exceeding the permitted dose caused a significant increase in thiouracil in urine of younger animals (1.55-20.95 μg/L) and there may be a reason for non-compliant results. The higher levels of endogenous thiouracil observed in young calves results from exceeding the recommended dose of rapeseed in diet as well as from intensive feeding of animals during growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Woźniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland.
| | - S Witek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - I Matraszek-Żuchowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - B Sell
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - A Posyniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
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4
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Control of Residues of Thyreostats in Slaughter Animals in Poland in 2011-2017. J Vet Res 2019; 62:511-517. [PMID: 30729210 PMCID: PMC6364168 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2018-0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction In the European Union, the use of thyreostatic drugs for fattening slaughter animals has been banned since 1981 under Council Directive 81/602/EEC. For protection of consumer health against unwanted residues and in compliance with Directive 96/23, each EU country must monitor thyreostats in samples of animal origin. This paper presents the results of research on thyreostatic residues carried out in Poland in 2011–2017. Material and Methods The material for testing was urine (n = 3,491), drinking water (n = 127), and muscle samples (n = 349) officially collected by Veterinary Sanitary Inspectors in slaughterhouses and farms throughout the country in accordance with the national residue control plan. The samples were examined for the presence of tapazole, thiouracil, methylthiouracil, propylthiouracil, and phenylthiouracil using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry through an accredited method. Results In four bovine and three porcine urine samples, the permissible thiouracil concentration was exceeded. In one sample of porcine urine, methyl- and propylthiouracil were found. The presence of thiouracil and its derivatives in urine samples is most likely due to feeding animals diet containing cruciferous plants. Conclusions The results of research indicate that thyreostats are not used for anabolic purposes in slaughter animals in Poland.
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Tölgyesi Á, Giri A, Barta E, McDonald TJ, Sharma VK. Determination of Thyreostats in Urine Using Supported Liquid Extraction and Mixed-Mode Cation-Exchange Solid-Phase Extraction: Screening and Confirmatory Methods. J Chromatogr Sci 2018; 56:858-866. [PMID: 29878072 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmy054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The application of thyreostats in livestock has been banned in the European Union since 1981, but these drugs are currently in the focus due to the natural occurrence of thiouracil (TU). Studies have been published on TU contamination in urine samples of animal and human origins without any drug administration of it. This paper presents new analytical methods to analyze thyreostats to support the legislation on the recommended concentration (RC) levels of these drugs. Both screening and confirmatory methods are developed for analyzing thyreostats in porcine and bovine urines using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry technique. The new methods include a chemical derivatization with 3-iodobenzyl bromide, followed by novel purification approaches using supported liquid extraction and mixed-mode cation-exchange solid-phase extraction (SPE) for screening and confirmatory purposes, respectively. The optimized derivatization in combination with the cation-exchange SPE gives high sensitivity and reducing matrix effect of the analysis. The methods are validated in accordance with the guidelines for the validation of screening methods and European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. The confirmatory method is used in the national monitoring plan. The detected levels of TU in urine samples are below the currently applicable RC level (10 μg L-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ádám Tölgyesi
- National Food Chain Safety Office, Food and Feed Safety Directorate, Food Toxicological National Reference Laboratory, Mester utca 81, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Anupam Giri
- University of Liège, Chemistry Institute, Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Organic & Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, allée du 6 aout, B6c, Liège, Belgium
| | - Eniko Barta
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Szt. Gellért tér 4, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Thomas J McDonald
- Program for the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, 212 Adriance Lab Road, 1266 TAMU, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Virender K Sharma
- Program for the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, 212 Adriance Lab Road, 1266 TAMU, College Station, TX, USA
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Rocchi S, Caretti F, Mainero Rocca L, Pérez-Fernández V, Tomai P, Dal Bosco C, Curini R, Gentili A. Subcritical water extraction of thyreostats from bovine muscle followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:1472-1483. [PMID: 29843563 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1472393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Thyreostats can be used fraudulently to promote a rapid increase in weight of breeding animals at low cost. Their severe toxicological effects impose the development of reliable analytical methods to be used in monitoring plans. This work describes an alternative approach to isolate residues of thiouracil, methyl-thiouracil, propyl-thiouracil, phenyl-thiouracil, tapazole and mercaptobenzimidazole from bovine muscle tissue. The developed procedure is based on the following three steps: i) matrix solid-phase dispersion with C18 for the preliminary sample preparation; ii) subcritical water extraction (SWE) at 160°C and 100 bar; iii) clean-up on an Oasis HLB cartridge. The quantitative determination was performed by LC-MS/MS in dual polarity ionization by using internal standardization. The SWE-LC-MS/MS method was validated according to the identification criteria of the Commission decision 2002/657/EC. The relative recoveries ranged from 72 to 97%; within-lab reproducibility was less than 18%. The decision limit and the detection capability of all analytes were below the recommended concentration, set at 10 µg kg-1, but the validation results demonstrated that this method could only be applied for screening of thiouracil and methyl-thiouracil. Besides the analytical advantages related to the use of water as solvent extraction, the procedure allowed significant removal of lipids, whose detrimental effects on instrumentation and MS sensitivity are well-known.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Rocchi
- a Department of Chemistry , "La Sapienza" University , Rome , Italy
| | - Fulvia Caretti
- a Department of Chemistry , "La Sapienza" University , Rome , Italy
| | | | | | - Pierpaolo Tomai
- a Department of Chemistry , "La Sapienza" University , Rome , Italy
| | - Chiara Dal Bosco
- a Department of Chemistry , "La Sapienza" University , Rome , Italy
| | - Roberta Curini
- a Department of Chemistry , "La Sapienza" University , Rome , Italy
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Van Meulebroek L, Wauters J, Pomian B, Vanden Bussche J, Delahaut P, Fichant E, Vanhaecke L. Discovery of urinary biomarkers to discriminate between exogenous and semi-endogenous thiouracil in cattle: A parallel-like randomized design. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195351. [PMID: 29649241 PMCID: PMC5896977 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In the European Union, the use of thyreostats for animal fattening purposes has been banned and monitoring plans have been established to detect potential abuse. However, this is not always straightforward as thyreostats such as thiouracil may also have a semi-endogenous origin. Therefore, this study aimed at defining urinary metabolites, which may aid in defining the origin of detected thiouracil. Hereto, a parallel-like randomized in vivo study was conducted in which calves (n = 8) and cows (n = 8) were subjected to either a control treatment, rapeseed-enriched diet to induce semi-endogenous formation, or thiouracil treatment. Urine samples (n = 330) were assessed through metabolic fingerprinting, employing liquid-chromatography and Q-ExactiveTM Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Urinary fingerprints comprised up to 40,000 features whereby multivariate discriminant analysis was able to point out significant metabolome differences between treatments (Q2(Y) ≥ 0.873). Using the validated models, a total of twelve metabolites (including thiouracil) were assigned marker potential. Combining these markers into age-dependent biomarker panels rendered a tool by which sample classification could be improved in comparison with thiouracil-based thresholds, and this during on-going thiouracil treatment (specificities ≥ 95.2% and sensitivities ≥ 85.7%), post-treatment (sensitivities ≥ 80% for ≥ 24 h after last administration), and simulated low-dose thiouracil treatment (exogenous thiouracil below 30 ng μL-1). Moreover, the metabolic relevance of revealed markers was supported by the suggested identities, for which a structural link with thiouracil could be determined in most cases. The proposed biomarker panels may contribute to a more justified decision-making in monitoring thiouracil abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieven Van Meulebroek
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium
- * E-mail:
| | - Jella Wauters
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Beata Pomian
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Julie Vanden Bussche
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | | | - Eric Fichant
- Health Department, CER Groupe, Rue Point du Jour, Marloie, Belgium
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium
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8
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Wozniak B, Matraszek-Zuchowska I, Witek S, Zmudzki J, Posyniak A. The effect of diet enriched with rapeseed meal on endogenous thiouracil contents in urine and milk of cattle. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:892-899. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1416181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Wozniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
| | | | - Sebastian Witek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Jan Zmudzki
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Andrzej Posyniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
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9
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Witek S, Wozniak B, Matraszek-Zuchowska I, Posyniak A. Analysis of thyreostats in bovine feces using ultra high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2018; 41:1083-1090. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201701069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Witek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; National Veterinary Research Institute Partyzantow 57; Pulawy Poland
| | - Barbara Wozniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; National Veterinary Research Institute Partyzantow 57; Pulawy Poland
| | - Iwona Matraszek-Zuchowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; National Veterinary Research Institute Partyzantow 57; Pulawy Poland
| | - Andrzej Posyniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; National Veterinary Research Institute Partyzantow 57; Pulawy Poland
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Report for 2015 on the results from the monitoring of veterinary medicinal product residues and other substances in live animals and animal products. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.en-1150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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11
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Wauters J, Van Meulebroek L, Fichant E, Delahaut P, Vanhaecke L. Discrimination between Synthetically Administered and Endogenous Thiouracil Based on Monitoring of Urine, Muscle, and Thyroid Tissue: An in Vivo Study in Young and Adult Bovines. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:6231-6239. [PMID: 28692258 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b01920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Thiouracil (TU), synthesized for its thyroid-regulating capacities and alternatively misused in livestock for its weight-gaining effects, is acknowledged to have an endogenous origin. Discrimination between low-level abuse and endogenous occurrence is challenging and unexplored in an experimental setting. Therefore, cows (n = 16) and calves (n = 18) were subjected to a rapeseed-supplemented diet or treated with synthetic TU. Significant higher urinary TU levels were recorded after TU administration (<CCα, 15 642 μg L-1) compared to rapeseed supplementation (<CCα, 65.8 μg L-1), however, with overlapping values. TU was not detected in the edible meat; however, concentrations between the CCα and 10 μg kg-1 were noted in thyroid tissue of calves and cows following rapeseed supplementation. The latter concentrations were significantly higher in thyroid tissue of calves (22.9-41.8 μg kg-1) and cows (16.9-36.7 μg kg-1) after synthetic TU administration. These results strongly point toward thyroid analysis as a discriminatory tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wauters
- Ghent University , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L Van Meulebroek
- Ghent University , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - E Fichant
- CER Groupe , Health Department, 6900 Marloie, Belgium
| | - P Delahaut
- CER Groupe , Health Department, 6900 Marloie, Belgium
| | - L Vanhaecke
- Ghent University , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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12
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Gentili A, De Pratti V, Caretti F, Pérez-Fernández V, Tomai P, Curini R, Mainero Rocca L. Residue analysis of thyreostats in baby foods via matrix solid phase dispersion and liquid chromatography – dual-polarity electrospray – tandem mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1793-1802. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1241899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Gentili
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria De Pratti
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Fulvia Caretti
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Virginia Pérez-Fernández
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Pierpaolo Tomai
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Curini
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Lucia Mainero Rocca
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, ‘Sapienza’ University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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13
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Report for 2014 on the results from the monitoring of veterinary medicinal product residues and other substances in live animals and animal products. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2016.en-923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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15
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Report for 2013 on the results from the monitoring of veterinary medicinal product residues and other substances in live animals and animal products. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2015.en-723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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16
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Wauters J, Vanden Bussche J, Bizec BL, Kiebooms JAL, Dervilly-Pinel G, Prevost S, Wozniak B, Sterk SS, Grønningen D, Kennedy DG, Russell S, Delahaut P, Vanhaecke L. Toward a new European threshold to discriminate illegally administered from naturally occurring thiouracil in livestock. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:1339-1346. [PMID: 25611753 DOI: 10.1021/jf504475f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Thiouracil is a thyrostat inhibiting the thyroid function, resulting in fraudulent weight gain if applied in the fattening of livestock. The latter abuse is strictly forbidden and monitored in the European Union. Recently, endogenous sources of thiouracil were identified after frequently monitoring low-level thiouracil positive urine samples and a "recommend concentration" (RC) of 10 μg/L was suggested by the EURL to facilitate decision-making. However, the systematic occurrence of urine samples exceeding the RC led to demands for international surveys defining an epidemiologic threshold. Therefore, six European member states (France, Poland, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, and Belgium) have shared their official thiouracil data (2010-2012) collected from bovines, porcines, and small livestock with 95 and 99% percentiles of 8.1 and 18.2 μg/L for bovines (n = 3894); 7.4 and 13.5 μg/L for porcines (n = 654); and 7.4 μg/L (95% only) for small livestock (n = 85), respectively. Bovine percentiles decreased with the animal age (nonadults had significantly higher levels for bovines), and higher levels were observed in male bovines compared to female bovines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jella Wauters
- Ghent University , Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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Validation of a quantitative method using liquid chromatography coupled to multiple mass spectrometry for thiouracil in feedstuffs used in animal husbandry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 407:4373-84. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8347-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Revised: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Thiouracil-Forming Bacteria Identified and Characterized upon Porcine In Vitro Digestion of Brassicaceae Feed. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 80:7433-42. [PMID: 25261511 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02370-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the frequent detection of the banned thyreostat thiouracil (TU) in livestock urine has been related to endogenous TU formation following digestion of glucosinolate-rich Brassicaceae crops. Recently, it was demonstrated that, upon in vitro digestion of Brassicaceae, fecal bacteria induce TU detection in livestock (porcine livestock > bovines). Therefore, the present study was intended to isolate and identify bacteria involved in this intestinal TU formation upon Brassicaceae digestion and to gain more insight into the underlying mechanism in porcine livestock. Twenty porcine fecal inocula (gilts and multiparous sows) were assessed through static in vitro colonic-digestion simulations with rapeseed. After derivatization and extraction of the fecal suspensions, TU was analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS(2)). On average, lower TU concentrations were observed in fecal colonic simulations in gilts (8.35 ng g(-1) rapeseed ± 3.42 [mean ± standard deviation]) than in multiparous sows (52.63 ng g(-1) ± 16.17), which correlates with maturation of the gut microbial population with age. Further exploration of the mechanism showed cell-dependent activity of the microbial conversion and sustained TU-forming activity after subjection of the fecal inoculum to moderate heat over a time span of up to 30 min. Finally, nine TU-producing bacterial species were successfully isolated and identified by a combination of biochemical and molecular techniques as Escherichia coli (n = 5), Lactobacillus reuteri (n = 2), Enterococcus faecium (n = 1), and Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae (n = 1). This report demonstrates that endogenous formation of TU is Brassicaceae induced and occurs under colonic conditions most likely through myrosinase-like enzyme activity expressed by different common intestinal bacterial species.
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Development and Application of LC-MS/MS Method for the Detection of Naturally Occurring Thiouracil in Milk Samples. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-014-9793-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Scientific Opinion on the public health hazards to be covered by inspection of meat (bovine animals). EFSA J 2013. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Lega F, Contiero L, Biancotto G, Angeletti R. Determination of thyreostats in muscle and thyroid tissues by QuEChERS extraction and ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:949-57. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.780212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
A risk ranking process identified Toxoplasma gondii and pathogenic verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) as the most relevant biological hazards for meat inspection of sheep and goats. As these are not detected by traditional meat inspection, a meat safety assurance system using risk-based interventions was proposed. Further studies are required on T. gondii and pathogenic VTEC. If new information confirms these hazards as a high risk to public health from meat from sheep or goats, setting targets at carcass level should be considered. Other elements of the system are risk-categorisation of flocks/herds based on improved Food Chain Information (FCI), classification of abattoirs according to their capability to reduce faecal contamination, and use of improved process hygiene criteria. It is proposed to omit palpation and incision from post-mortem inspection in animals subjected to routine slaughter. For chemical hazards, dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls were ranked as being of high potential concern. Monitoring programmes for chemical hazards should be more flexible and based on the risk of occurrence, taking into account FCI, which should be expanded to reflect the extensive production systems used, and the ranking of chemical substances, which should be regularly updated and include new hazards. Control programmes across the food chain, national residue control plans, feed control and monitoring of environmental contaminants should be better integrated. Meat inspection is a valuable tool for surveillance and monitoring of animal health and welfare conditions. Omission of palpation and incision would reduce detection effectiveness for tuberculosis and fasciolosis at animal level. Surveillance of tuberculosis at the slaughterhouse in small ruminants should be improved and encouraged, as this is in practice the only surveillance system available. Extended use of FCI could compensate for some, but not all, the information on animal health and welfare lost if only visual post-mortem inspection is applied.
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Abstract
In the late 1970s, concerns were raised regarding why antithyroid drugs were being administered to food animals to promote growth despite the fact that they had been implicated as being carcinogenic and teratogenic; the growth promotion process produced an inferior quality meat with increased water retention in the animal's gastrointestinal tract. An increased incidence of aplasia cutis (a characteristic scalp defect) in consumers in Spain was linked to an increased consumption of antithyroid-contaminated meat. Therefore, to protect human health, the EU banned the use of antithyroid drugs in food animal production in 1981. This article reviews the impact of this regulatory decision on the regulatory analysis of these compounds in foods of animal origin. It discusses the physiology of the thyroid gland, the chemistry of antithyroid drugs and critically evaluates the suitability of the analytical methods that have been developed and validated to support enforcement of the regulation.
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Kiebooms JAL, Vanden Bussche J, Hemeryck LY, Fievez V, Vanhaecke L. Intestinal microbiota contribute to the endogenous formation of thiouracil in livestock. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:7769-7776. [PMID: 22834937 DOI: 10.1021/jf3017145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the frequent detection of the banned substance thiouracil (TU) in livestock urine has been related to its endogenous formation following consumption of glucosinolate-rich Brassicaceae crops. Besides, TU residues have been recovered in these crops upon plant-derived myrosinase hydrolysis. Through in vitro bovine and porcine static digestive simulations, the influence of gastrointestinal digestion of Brassicaceae-derived matrixes on TU formation was assessed. Following derivatization and LC-MS(2) analysis, TU was detected in colonic suspensions with traditional rapeseed, coarse colza "00" meal, cauliflower, and broccoli ranging from 3.47 to 30.96 μg kg(-1) (bovine) and from 3.55 to 26.34 μg kg(-1) (porcine). In stomach and small intestinal fluids, TU remained unfound, whereas upon rumen simulation TU was detected for coarse colza "00" meal (4.43 μg kg(-1)) and grounded traditional rapeseed (0.35 μg kg(-1)). The origin of this detection was investigated through filter-sterilizing and autoclaving the fecal inoculum causing a significant decrease in TU concentration, thereby reinforcing the possibility of an active bacterial involvement, which however was characterized with a high interanimal variation. In conclusion, these results support the previously proven endogenous origin of TU and acknowledge the active role of the gastrointestinal bacteria in TU formation, through production of an extracellular component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A L Kiebooms
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary, Public Health and Food Safety, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Vanden Bussche J, Sterk SS, De Brabander HF, Blokland MH, Deceuninck Y, Le Bizec B, Vanhaecke L. Thyreostatic drugs, stability in bovine and porcine urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:2973-82. [PMID: 22349321 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5739-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Revised: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Thyreostatic drugs, illegally administrated to livestock for fattening purposes, are banned in the European Union since 1981. For monitoring their illegal use, sensitive and specific analytical methods are required. In this context, the knowledge of the stability in a matrix is of primary importance. This study aimed at evaluating the effects of preservation, number of freeze-thaw cycles, and matrix-related variables on the stability of thyreostatic drugs in the urine of livestock. Finally, the developed conservation approach was applied on incurred urine samples, which displayed traces of the thyreostat thiouracil below the recommended concentration of 10 μg L(-1). The stability study confirmed the negative influence of preservation (8 h) at room temperature and at -70 °C, decreases in concentration of more than 78.0% were observed for all thyreostats, except for 1-methyl-2-mercaptoimidazole and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole. Additionally, investigation of matrix-related variables indicated significant impacts of the presence of copper (p = 0.001) and the pH (p = 0.002). Next, an optimised pre-treatment (pH 1 and 0.1 M ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt dehydrate) significantly differing from the original conservation approach (p < 0.05) was developed, which proved capable of delaying the decrease in concentration and improved the detection in time for both spiked as well as incurred urine samples. In the future, it seems highly advisable to apply the developed pre-treatment on incurred urines upon sampling, before thyreostat analysis. Additionally, it is recommendable to limit preservation of urine samples at room temperature, but also in the freezer prior to thyreostat analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Vanden Bussche
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Research Group of Veterinary Public Health and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry with ion trap and triple quadrupole analyzers for determination of thyreostatic drugs in urine and muscle tissue. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 700:155-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Revised: 12/29/2010] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Vanden Bussche J, Kiebooms JAL, De Clercq N, Deceuninck Y, Le Bizec B, De Brabander HF, Vanhaecke L. Feed or food responsible for the presence of low-level thiouracil in urine of livestock and humans? JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:5786-5792. [PMID: 21504236 DOI: 10.1021/jf200556x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, questions have been raised on the possible semi-endogenous status of the alleged xenobiotic thyreostatic drug thiouracil; thiouracil has been detected in the urine of various animals (livestock and domesticated) at concentrations between 1 and 10 μg L(-1) and also in human urine. Although several studies suggest Brassicaceae-derived feed as potential origin, no traces of thiouracil have been detected in feed so far. Therefore, the aim of this study was to elucidate the origin of thiouracil in the urine of livestock and humans. To this purpose various Brassicaceae feed and food sources (e.g., rapeseed, rapeseed coarse meal, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli) were investigated for the presence of thiouracil. In addition, the impact of the Brassicaceae-related β-thioglucosidase enzyme was evaluated. This myrosinase enzyme appeared to be crucial, because without its catalyzed hydrolysis no thiouracil could be detected in the various Brassicaceae-derived samples. Therefore, a sample pretreatment with incorporated enzymatic hydrolysis was developed after ensuring the quality performance of the extracted myrosinase mixture with a single-point glucose assay. Upon enzymatic hydrolysis and LC-MS(2) analysis, thiouracil was successfully detected in samples of traditional rapeseed, rapeseed-'00' variety coarse meal (values of erucic acid <2% and glucosinolates <25 μmol g(-1)), and rapeseed cake at 1.5, 1.6, and 0.4 μg kg(-1), respectively. As for the food samples, broccoli and cauliflower displayed thiouracil concentrations of 6.0 and <1.0 μg kg(-1), respectively. To the best of the authors' knowledge this study is the first to report the presence of naturally occurring thiouracil in feed and food samples. Future research should investigate the pathway of thiouracil formation and identify its possible precursors.
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Le Bizec B, Bichon E, Deceuninck Y, Prévost S, Monteau F, Antignac JP, Dervilly-Pinel G. Toward a criterion for suspect thiouracil administration in animal husbandry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2011; 28:840-7. [PMID: 21547795 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2011.565483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Thyreostats are growth-promoters banned in Europe since 1981. The identification of thiouracil (TU) in animal biological matrices can, however, no longer be systematically interpreted as a consequence of illegal administration. Indeed, some experimental results have indicated a causal link between cruciferous-based diet and the presence of TU in urine of bovines. The present study aims at investigating, on a large scale (n > 1300), the natural occurrence of thiouracil in urine samples collected from different animal species. TU was identified in main breeding animal species: bovine, porcine and ovine. The natural distribution of TU allowed proposing threshold values to differentiate compliant from suspect urine samples. Suggested values are 5.7 and 9.1 µg l(-1) in male adult bovines (6-24 months), 3.1 and 8.1 µg l(-1) in female adult bovines (6-24 months), 7.3 and 17.7 µg l(-1) in calves (<6 months), 3.9 and 8.8 µg l(-1) in female bovines (>24 months), and 2.9 and 4.1 µg l(-1) in porcines at a 95 and 99% confidence level, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Le Bizec
- a ONIRIS, École Nationale Vétérinaire, Agroalimentaire et de l'Alimentation Nantes-Atlantique, Laboratoire d'Étude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA) , Atlanpole - La Chantrerie , BP 40706, Nantes F-44307 , France
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Vanden Bussche J, Vanhaecke L, Deceuninck Y, Wille K, Bekaert K, Le Bizec B, De Brabander H. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry detection of naturally occurring thiouracil in urine of untreated livestock, domesticated animals and humans. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2011; 28:166-72. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2010.544681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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De Brabander HF, Vanden Bussche J, Wille K, Bekaert K, Vanhaecke L. The state of the art of residue analysis: the 6th VDRA symposium 2010. Drug Test Anal 2010; 2:421-3. [PMID: 20839364 DOI: 10.1002/dta.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Since the onset of residue analysis (ca 40 years ago) a lot of attention has been paid to the amelioration of analytical methods, for example, lowering the limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) or decision limits (CCα) and detection capabilities (CCβ), including an increase in the number of analytes, shortening runtimes, increasing sample throughput, amongst others. The state of the art in residue analysis, which was presented at the VDRA 2010 symposium (Hormone and Veterinary Drug Residue Analysis) in Ghent is reviewed in this article. From an analytical point of view, the use of ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) hyphenated with accurate mass spectrometry is often used in combination with other (biological) detection systems and 'omic' approaches. Through these techniques more xenobiotic substances turn out to be naturally occurring in some matrices and/or circumstances (e.g. thiouracil, chloramphenicol and semicarbazide).
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Affiliation(s)
- H F De Brabander
- Ghent University, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Vanden Bussche J, Vanhaecke L, Deceuninck Y, Verheyden K, Wille K, Bekaert K, Le Bizec B, De Brabander H. Development and validation of an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for quantifying thyreostats in urine without derivatisation. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:4285-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Revised: 04/01/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Lõhmus M, Kallaste K, Le Bizec B. Determination of thyreostats in urine and thyroid gland by ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:8080-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2009] [Revised: 03/29/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Options for veterinary drug analysis using mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:8016-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2009] [Revised: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 07/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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De Brabander H, Noppe H, Verheyden K, Vanden Bussche J, Wille K, Okerman L, Vanhaecke L, Reybroeck W, Ooghe S, Croubels S. Residue analysis: Future trends from a historical perspective. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:7964-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vanden Bussche J, Noppe H, Verheyden K, Wille K, Pinel G, Le Bizec B, De Brabander HF. Analysis of thyreostats: a history of 35 years. Anal Chim Acta 2008; 637:2-12. [PMID: 19286005 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2008.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2008] [Accepted: 08/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Thyreostatic drugs (TS), illegally administrated to livestock for fattening purposes, are banned in the European Union since 1981 (Council Directive 81/602/EC). This paper reviews the trends in the analytical approaches for the determination of TS drugs in biological matrices. After a brief introduction on the different groups of compounds with a thyreostatic action, the most relevant legislation regarding the residue control of these compounds is presented. An overview of the analytical possibilities for the determination of TS in animal matrices, covering sample extraction, purification, separation techniques and detection methods is provided. Additionally, a brief outline of animal experiments is described that illustrates the excretion and distribution profiles of TS residues. Finally, the novel developments in TS analysis are highlighted. Also the possible semi-endogenous status of thiouracil is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Vanden Bussche
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Research Group of Veterinary Public Health and Zoonoses, Laboratory Chemical Analysis, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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