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Hoffmann A, Schiestl S, Sinske P, Gondan M, Sachse P, Maran T. Sharing and Receiving Eye-Contact Predicts Mate Choice After a 5-Minute Conversation: Evidence from a Speed-Dating Study. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2024; 53:959-968. [PMID: 38379110 PMCID: PMC10920202 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-023-02806-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
In popular narratives, the first date with a potential mate often centers on their gaze as embodiment of interest and attraction. However, evidence is still lacking on the role of eye-contact as a potent signal in human social interaction in the context of dating. In addition, behavioral mechanisms of mate selection are not well understood. In the present study, we therefore examined mutual eye-contact and its influence on mate choice by applying dual mobile eye-tracking during naturalistic speed-dates. A total of 30 male and 30 female subjects attended four speed-dates each (N = 240). Subjects were more likely to choose those dating partners with whom they shared more eye-contact with. In addition, perceived attractiveness played an important role for mate choice. Interestingly, receiving but not giving eye-contact also predicted individual mate choice. Eye-contact thus acts as an important signal of romantic attraction when encountering a dating partner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Hoffmann
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Universität Innsbruck, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Sabrina Schiestl
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Universität Innsbruck, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Philipp Sinske
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Universität Innsbruck, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Matthias Gondan
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Universität Innsbruck, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Pierre Sachse
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Universität Innsbruck, Universitätsstraße 5-7, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Thomas Maran
- Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Management, Free University of Bozen, Bozen, Italy
- LeadershipWerk, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
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2
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Zhang Z, Peng Y, Jiang Y, Chen T. The pictorial set of Emotional Social Interactive Scenarios between Chinese Adults (ESISCA): Development and validation. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:2581-2594. [PMID: 37528294 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02168-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Affective picture databases with a single facial expression or body posture in one image have been widely applied to investigate emotion. However, to date, there was no standardized database containing the stimuli which involve multiple emotional signals in social interactive scenarios. The current study thus developed a pictorial set comprising 274 images depicting two Chinese adults' interactive scenarios conveying emotions of happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, and neutral. The data of the valence and arousal ratings of the scenes and the emotional categories of the scenes and the faces in the images were provided in the present study. Analyses of the data collected from 70 undergraduate students suggested high reliabilities of the valence and arousal ratings of the scenes and high judgmental agreements in categorizing the scene and facial emotions. The findings suggested that the present dataset is well constructed and could be useful for future studies to investigate the emotion recognition or empathy in social interactions in both healthy and clinical (e.g., ASD) populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyu Zhang
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China
| | - Yanqin Peng
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China
| | - Yiyao Jiang
- College of Arts and Sciences, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA
| | - Tingji Chen
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China.
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3
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Human face and gaze perception is highly context specific and involves bottom-up and top-down neural processing. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 132:304-323. [PMID: 34861296 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes human perception and processing of face and gaze signals. Face and gaze signals are important means of non-verbal social communication. The review highlights that: (1) some evidence is available suggesting that the perception and processing of facial information starts in the prenatal period; (2) the perception and processing of face identity, expression and gaze direction is highly context specific, the effect of race and culture being a case in point. Culture affects by means of experiential shaping and social categorization the way in which information on face and gaze is collected and perceived; (3) face and gaze processing occurs in the so-called 'social brain'. Accumulating evidence suggests that the processing of facial identity, facial emotional expression and gaze involves two parallel and interacting pathways: a fast and crude subcortical route and a slower cortical pathway. The flow of information is bi-directional and includes bottom-up and top-down processing. The cortical networks particularly include the fusiform gyrus, superior temporal sulcus (STS), intraparietal sulcus, temporoparietal junction and medial prefrontal cortex.
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4
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Chen T, Sun Y, Feng C, Feng W. In Identifying the Source of the Incongruent Effect. J PSYCHOPHYSIOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1027/0269-8803/a000290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. Emotional signals from the face and body are normally perceived as an integrated whole in everyday life. Previous studies have revealed an incongruent effect which refers to distinctive behavioral and neural responses to emotionally congruent versus incongruent face-body compounds. However, it remains unknown which kind of the face-body compounds caused the incongruence effect. In the present study, we added neutral face and neutral body stimuli to form new face-body compounds. Forty subjects with normal or corrected-to-normal vision participated in this experiment. By comparing the face-body compounds with emotional conflict and face-body compounds with neutral stimuli, we could investigate the source of the incongruent effect. For both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) data, a 2 (bodily expression: happiness, fear) × 2 (congruence: congruent, incongruent) repeated-measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to re-investigate the incongruent effect and a 3 (facial expression: fearful, happy, neutral) × 3 (bodily expression: fearful, happy, neutral) repeated-measure ANOVA was performed to clarify the source of the incongruent effect. As expected, both behavioral and ERP results have successfully repeated the incongruent effect. Specifically, the behavioral data showed that emotionally congruent versus incongruent face-body compounds were recognized more accurately ( p < .05). The ERP component of N2 was modulated by the emotional congruency between the facial and bodily expression showing that the emotionally incongruent compounds elicited greater N2 amplitudes than emotionally congruent compounds ( p < .05). No incongruent effect was found for P1 or P3 component ( p = .079, p = .99, respectively). Furthermore, by comparing the emotionally incongruent pairs with the neutral baseline, the present study suggests that the source of the incongruent effect might be from the happy face-fearful body compounds. We speculate that the emotion expressed by the fearful body was much more intensive than the emotion expressed by the happy body and thus caused a stronger interference in judging the facial expressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingji Chen
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, SooChow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yanting Sun
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, SooChow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chengzhi Feng
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, SooChow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Wenfeng Feng
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, SooChow University, Suzhou, China
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5
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Hietanen JK, Peltola MJ. The eye contact smile: The effects of sending and receiving a direct gaze. VISUAL COGNITION 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2021.1915904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jari K. Hietanen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Mikko J. Peltola
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
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6
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7
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Early integration of affectively contextual information when processing low-intensity fearful faces: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Int J Psychophysiol 2020; 156:1-9. [PMID: 32663482 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In daily social situations, faces rarely appear in isolation and are often contextual. This study investigated individuals' behavioral and neural responses to facial expressions with different intensities embedded in emotional scenes. Participants were presented with neutral, low-intensity, and prototypical fearful expressions embedded in positive and negative scenes and instructed to categorize the facial expressions as neutral or fearful. The behavioral results showed that neutral and low-intensity fearful expressions embedded in negative scenes were rated as fearful significantly more frequently than the same faces embedded in positive scenes. Event-related potential analyses revealed the time course of the integration of contextual information when processing facial expressions. N170 modulation by scene valence was found for low-intensity and prototypical fearful expressions, showing greater N170 elicited by negative than positive scenes. The results suggest that affective information extracted from contextual scenes influences the processing of facial emotions in the early perceptual encoding stage. Furthermore, the pattern of effect varies for different intensities of expressions.
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8
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Capellini R, Riva P, Ricciardelli P, Sacchi S. Turning Away From Averted Gazes: The Effect of Social Exclusion on Gaze Cueing. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1000. [PMID: 31156494 PMCID: PMC6532345 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Past studies showed increased sensitivity to other people’s gaze after social exclusion. In the present research, across two studies, we tested whether social exclusion could affect the basic cognitive phenomenon of gaze-cueing effect, namely, the tendency to redirect visual attention to the same location that other people are looking at. To this purpose, participants were socially excluded or included using the Cyberball manipulation. In Study 1, after the manipulation, participants performed a gaze-cueing task in which an individual’s gaze, oriented rightward or leftward, preceded a peripheral target stimulus requiring a simple categorization response. The gaze direction could be congruent or incongruent with the location of the target. Results revealed a reduced gaze-cueing effect for socially excluded than for socially included participants. In Study 2, where human gazes were replaced by arrow cues, such an interaction between social exclusion and trial congruency disappeared, indicating a specific effect of social stimuli. We interpreted these findings with the notion that excluded participants can perceive an averted gaze as a further sign of social exclusion, thus showing a reduced gaze-cueing effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Capellini
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Riva
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,NeuroMI, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Ricciardelli
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,NeuroMI, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - Simona Sacchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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9
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Burra N, Mares I, Senju A. The influence of top-down modulation on the processing of direct gaze. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2019; 10:e1500. [PMID: 30864304 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Gaze or eye contact is one of the most important nonverbal social cues, which is fundamental to human social interactions. To achieve real time and dynamic face-to-face communication, our brain needs to process another person's gaze direction rapidly and without explicit instruction. In order to explain the fast and spontaneous processing of direct gaze, the fast-track modulator model was proposed. Here, we review recent developments in gaze processing research in the last decade to extend the fast-track modulator model. In particular, we propose that task demand or top-down modulation could play a more crucial role at gaze processing than formerly assumed. We suggest that under different task demands, top-down modulation can facilitate or interfere with the direct gaze effects for early visual processing. The proposed modification of the model extends the role of task demand and its implication on the direct gaze effect, as well as the need to better control for top-down processing in order to better disentangle the role of top-down and bottom-up processing on the direct gaze effect. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Psychology > Perception and Psychophysics Neuroscience > Cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Burra
- Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Education, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ines Mares
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London, England
| | - Atsushi Senju
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London, England.,Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, England
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10
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Syrjämäki AH, Hietanen JK. Social inclusion, but not exclusion, delays attentional disengagement from direct gaze. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 84:1126-1138. [PMID: 30324264 PMCID: PMC7239803 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-1108-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated whether another person’s direct gaze holds a perceiver’s visuospatial attention and whether social exclusion or social inclusion would enhance this effect. Participants were socially excluded, socially included, or underwent a non-social control manipulation in a virtual ball-tossing game. The manipulation was followed by an attentional disengagement task, in which we measured manual response times in identification of peripheral stimuli shown to the left or right of centrally presented faces portraying direct or downward gaze. Contrary to our hypotheses, the response times were not, in general, longer for direct gaze trials than downward gaze trials, and exclusion did not increase the delay in direct gaze trials. Instead, we discovered that, in the social inclusion group, the response times were longer for direct gaze trials relative to downward gaze trials. Thus, social inclusion might have activated affiliation-related cognitive processes leading to delayed attentional disengagement from faces cueing affiliation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksi H Syrjämäki
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere, 33014, Tampere, Finland.
| | - Jari K Hietanen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere, 33014, Tampere, Finland.
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11
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Abstract
In recent years, many studies have shown that perceiving other individuals' direct gaze has robust effects on various attentional and cognitive processes. However, considerably less attention has been devoted to investigating the affective effects triggered by eye contact. This article reviews research concerning the effects of others' gaze direction on observers' affective responses. The review focuses on studies in which affective reactions have been investigated in well-controlled laboratory experiments, and in which contextual factors possibly influencing perceivers' affects have been controlled. Two important themes emerged from this review. First, explicit affective evaluations of seeing another's direct versus averted gaze have resulted in rather inconsistent findings; some studies report more positive subjective feelings to direct compared to averted gaze, whereas others report the opposite pattern. These contradictory findings may be related, for example, to differences between studies in terms of the capability of direct-gaze stimuli to elicit feelings of self-involvement. Second, studies relying on various implicit measures have reported more consistent results; they indicate that direct gaze increases affective arousal, and more importantly, that eye contact automatically evokes a positively valenced affective reaction. Based on the review, possible psychological mechanisms for the positive affective reactions elicited by eye contact are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jari K. Hietanen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
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12
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I don't need your attention: ostracism can narrow the cone of gaze. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 84:99-110. [PMID: 29464315 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-0993-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that ostracized participants seek inclusive cues, such as gaze directed at them, when trying to reaffiliate. However, instead of seeking reinclusion, ostracized individuals may sometimes withdraw from interactions if not offered an opportunity for reaffiliation. In the current study, after an ostracism manipulation with no reaffiliation opportunity, participants judged whether faces portraying direct gaze or slightly averted gaze (2°-8° to the left and to the right) were looking at them or not. Compared to an inclusion group and a non-social control group, ostracized participants accepted a smaller range of gaze directions as being directed at them, i.e., they had a narrower "cone of gaze". The width of the gaze cone was equally wide in the inclusion and control groups. We propose that, without an opportunity for reaffiliation, ostracized participants may start to view other people as particularly unapproachable, possibly indicative of a motivational tendency to disengage from interactions.
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13
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Xu S, Zhang S, Geng H. The Effect of Eye Contact Is Contingent on Visual Awareness. Front Psychol 2018; 9:93. [PMID: 29467703 PMCID: PMC5808343 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study explored how eye contact at different levels of visual awareness influences gaze-induced joint attention. We adopted a spatial-cueing paradigm, in which an averted gaze was used as an uninformative central cue for a joint-attention task. Prior to the onset of the averted-gaze cue, either supraliminal (Experiment 1) or subliminal (Experiment 2) eye contact was presented. The results revealed a larger subsequent gaze-cueing effect following supraliminal eye contact compared to a no-contact condition. In contrast, the gaze-cueing effect was smaller in the subliminal eye-contact condition than in the no-contact condition. These findings suggest that the facilitation effect of eye contact on coordinating social attention depends on visual awareness. Furthermore, subliminal eye contact might have an impact on subsequent social attention processes that differ from supraliminal eye contact. This study highlights the need to further investigate the role of eye contact in implicit social cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Xu
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shen Zhang
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, Whitewater, WI, United States
| | - Haiyan Geng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Hietanen JK, Helminen TM, Kiilavuori H, Kylliäinen A, Lehtonen H, Peltola MJ. Your attention makes me smile: Direct gaze elicits affiliative facial expressions. Biol Psychol 2018; 132:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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15
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Syrjämäki AH, Lyyra P, Peltola MJ, Hietanen JK. When a Look Is Not Enough: No Evidence for Direct Gaze Facilitating Recovery after Social Exclusion. SOCIAL COGNITION 2017. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2017.35.6.601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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16
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Chen T, Peltola MJ, Dunn R, Pajunen SM, Hietanen JK. Modulation of the eyeblink and cardiac startle reflexes by genuine eye contact. Psychophysiology 2017; 54:1872-1881. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tingji Chen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory; Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere; Tampere Finland
| | - Mikko J. Peltola
- Human Information Processing Laboratory; Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere; Tampere Finland
| | - Richard Dunn
- Human Information Processing Laboratory; Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere; Tampere Finland
| | - Sanna M. Pajunen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory; Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere; Tampere Finland
| | - Jari K. Hietanen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory; Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, University of Tampere; Tampere Finland
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17
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Chen T, Peltola MJ, Ranta LJ, Hietanen JK. Affective Priming by Eye Gaze Stimuli: Behavioral and Electrophysiological Evidence. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:619. [PMID: 28003803 PMCID: PMC5141591 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study employed the affective priming paradigm and measurements of event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate implicit affective reactions elicited by gaze stimuli. Participants categorized positive and negative words primed by direct gaze, averted gaze and closed eyes. The behavioral response time (RT) results indicated that direct gaze implicitly elicited more positive affective reactions than did closed eyes. Analyses of the ERP responses to the target words revealed a priming effect on the N170 and an interaction on late positive potential (LPP) responses, and congruently with the behavioral results, suggested that, compared to closed eyes, direct gaze was affectively more congruent with positive words and more incongruent with negative words. The priming effect on the N170 response indicated that gaze stimuli influenced the subsequent affective word processing at an early stage of information processing. In conclusion, the present behavioral and electrophysiological evidence suggests that direct gaze automatically activates more positive affective reactions than closed eyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingji Chen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, School of Social Sciences and Humanities/Psychology, University of TampereTampere, Finland
| | - Mikko J. Peltola
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, School of Social Sciences and Humanities/Psychology, University of TampereTampere, Finland
| | - Lotta J. Ranta
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, School of Social Sciences and Humanities/Psychology, University of TampereTampere, Finland
| | - Jari K. Hietanen
- Human Information Processing Laboratory, School of Social Sciences and Humanities/Psychology, University of TampereTampere, Finland
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