Testing relationships from the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation using flow as a motivational consequence

Self-Determined Regulation, Achievement Goals and Sport Commitment in Spanish Masters Swimmers

This work analyses the motivational regulation, achievement goals and sport commitment of Spanish Masters swimmers, being the first study of its kind. A total of 211 (106 women and 105 men) Masters swimmers from the Federation of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) aged between 20 and 74 participated. Each participant completed the Sport Motivation Scale (motivation regulation), the Achievement Goals Questionnaire for Sport (achievement goals) and the Sport Commitment Questionnaire (sport commitment), all validated for the Spanish population. A mixed rANOVA was performed to analyse the results, using sex and age group as covariates, and the different groupings of the sample (weekly training days, weekly training hours and practice of other sports) as between-participants factors. The results showed that the participants presented a predominantly intrinsic-integrated and identified regulation, rather than introjected and external regulation. Mastery goals were more prevalent than performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. In addition, current sport commitment was high, being greater than future commitment. Pearson's correlation analysis showed moderate relationships between our variables. We found no influence of either the covariates of sex and age or the grouping variables. These findings serve as the basis for further study of the motivation of Masters swimmers in Spain.

Prediction of the adherence to sports practice of young Ecuadorians based on the perception of the coach's interpersonal style

Based on the framework of the self-determination theory, the present study aimed to test a predictive model in the Ecuadorian sports context by using autonomy support as a trigger, which was mediated by basic psychological needs and later by autonomous motivation. This procedure was used to predict the intention to be physically active and was carried out on 280 athletes from the province of Azuay (Ecuador) aged between 12 and 20 years (M = 15.28; SD = 1.71). Different scales were used to measure the perception of the interpersonal style of autonomy supported by the coach. The scales employed included the degree of satisfaction of basic psychological needs, motivation to practice sports, and intention to be physically active. A structural equation analysis revealed that perceived autonomy support positively predicted basic psychological needs, which in turn positively predicted autonomous motivation and, as a result, the athletes' intentions to be physically active. It was concluded that coaches' support for the interpersonal style of autonomy can benefit the development of basic psychological needs as well as autonomous motivation, which in turn can increase young athletes' intentions to be physically active. Future research is also recommended to verify this predictive model and to encourage further experimental studies in which coaches promote autonomy support for athletes intending to increase their adherence to practising sports.

"I've Always Thought That I Was Not Good at Experiments…"-The Benefit of Non-formal Learning in Terms of Students' Perceived Competence

Outreach science labs have been established as non-formal out-of-school learning environments in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Previous research has suggested that visiting an outreach science lab can be beneficial in terms of student motivation. Nevertheless, the current research on these out-of-school learning environments lacks studies that investigate important variables for the development of self-determined student motivation, such as perceived competence. In our study, we investigated the moderating effect of the learning environment on the relationship between students' contextual competence perceptions and their situational competence experiences regarding experimentation. For this purpose, 119 students in the first year of the upper secondary school participated in an experimental course on enzymology at an outreach science lab (n = 60) and in their biology classroom at school (n = 59). Our results showed that the relationship between students' contextual competence perceptions and their situational competence experiences during experimentation is moderated by the learning environment. The analyses revealed that students with a higher contextual competence perception showed comparable situational experiences of competence in both learning environments. In contrast, the students who perceived themselves as less competent at a contextual level benefited from experimenting at the outreach science lab in terms of their situational competence experiences.

Do you see what I see? The influence of self-objectification on appearance anxiety, intrinsic motivation, interoceptive awareness, and physical performance

Self-objectification negatively impacts body image, mental health, and cognitive performance outcomes in women and has been correlated with poorer physical performance. The purpose of this study was to determine if trying on a swimsuit (versus a sweater) impacted state self-objectification, body shame, social physique anxiety, intrinsic motivation, bodily awareness, and physical performance in university women. Female undergraduate students (N = 52) were randomly assigned to try on either a swimsuit (objectification condition) or sweater (control condition) and complete measures of self-objectification, body shame, appearance anxiety, intrinsic motivation, and interoceptive awareness, and perform a series of balance tasks. Women in the swimsuit condition reported higher state self-objectification, body-related shame and appearance anxiety, and lower intrinsic motivation compared to women in the sweater condition. In addition, women in the swimsuit condition restricted body movements during a 1-legged stand balance task. Consistent with objectification theory, women may have made smaller physical movements in an attempt to hide or cover up the body. Findings could have implications for promoting positive experiences during physical activity for women, such as in sport, exercise or rehabilitation settings.

Adaptive Social Factors and Precompetitive Anxiety in Elite Sport

Grounded in achievement goal theory and self-determination theory, the aim of this study was to analyze the motivational determinants of precompetitive anxiety in the sports context, considering the horizontal motivational sequence: adaptive social factors (task-involving climate, autonomy support style), competence need, types of motivation (autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, amotivation), and consequences (precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence). This study was also conducted in order to analyze the mediating role of the need for competition and motivational regulations on social factors and consequences. The sample consisted of 217 athletes of both sexes engaged in elite sport, who answered a series of questionnaires to measure study variables to develop an analysis of the structural equation model. The results showed that both the task-involving climate and autonomy support were associated with competence need, and competence need was associated with autonomous motivation in a positive way and with controlled motivation and amotivation in a negative way. On the other hand, autonomous motivation was positively associated with self-confidence, while amotivation was positively related to somatic and cognitive anxiety before a competition. Furthermore, there was a total mediation of competence need and autonomous motivation between task climate and self-confidence. In conclusion, these social factors favor self-confidence, and besides, these climates disfavor anxiety before a sport competition.

Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants' exercise adherence

Objective: This study aims to predict exercise adherence by examining from the standpoints of the exercise intention, the self-determination theory and the sport commitment model. Design and Main Outcome Measures: Data were collected from 391 Korean sports centre members (teens: 5.4%, twenties: 15.1%, thirties: 25.1%, forties: 28.1% and ≥ fifties: 26.3%). Questionnaires assessed the exercise intention and sport commitment as well as autonomy, competence and relatedness. Exercise adherence was measured by electronic attendance system. Data were analysed using reliability testing, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, logistic regression analysis and binary classifier system. Results: All variables except for cognitive commitment had significant predictive power for 3-month exercise adherence. In contrast, only basic psychological needs were found to have significant predictive power for 6-month exercise adherence. Further, autonomy (OR = 4.58) showing the strongest predictive power (classification accuracy = 86.4%). Conclusion: These findings imply that 'basic psychological needs' plays a more key role than 'exercise intention' in predicting exercise adherence. This study has implications that need to focus not only on enjoyment or competition but also on the autonomy, relatedness and competence pertaining to the basic psychological needs and to work to satisfy those needs and maintain motivation to continue regular exercise.

Have you been exercising lately? Testing the role of past behavior on exercise adherence

The purpose of this study was to test the effect of past behavior on future behavior, considering the motivational sequence proposed by the self-determination theory. The total sample was formed by 293 exercisers aged between 18 and 65 (M = 36.57 ± SD = 11.25) years. Participants completed a multi-section survey of motivational, emotional and cognitive-related variables, and exercise adherence was measured using computer records. Past behavior was found to offset the direct effect of intention on future behavior and the indirect effect of all other variables under analysis on intention, acting as a "buffer" variable for experienced gym members.

Becoming who you are: An integrative review of self-determination theory and personality systems interactions theory

One of the enduring missions of personality science is to unravel what it takes to become a fully functioning person. In the present article, the authors address this matter from the perspectives of self‐determination theory (SDT) and personality systems interactions (PSI) theory. SDT (a) is rooted in humanistic psychology; (b) has emphasized a first‐person perspective on motivation and personality; (c) posits that the person, supported by the social environment, naturally moves toward growth through the satisfaction of basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. PSI theory (a) is rooted in German volition psychology; (b) has emphasized a third‐person perspective on motivation and personality; and (c) posits that a fully functioning person can form and enact difficult intentions and integrate new experiences, and that such competencies are facilitated by affect regulation. The authors review empirical support for SDT and PSI theory, their convergences and divergences, and how the theories bear on recent empirical research on internalization, vitality, and achievement flow. The authors conclude that SDT and PSI theory offer complementary insights into developing a person's full potential.

Empirical Links between Instruction with Teaching Tools and the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in a Korean College Tennis Class

The objective of this study was to demonstrate the sequential process (i.e., social factors → mediators → motivation → consequences) underlying the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation at the contextual level in instruction using three teaching tools, modified balls, a high net, and colored balls and cones in a college-level tennis class in South Korea. 126 students enrolled in a 15-week tennis class participated in the study. The results indicate that the three teaching tools positively affected students' perceived competence, with perceived competence's beta on intrinsic motivation equal to 0.45. Intrinsic motivation was found to reduce negative affect further by −0.33, thereby demonstrating the sequential process of the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.

Psychological predictors of children' s recess physical activity motivation and behavior

PURPOSE

This study explored the relationship between children's basic psychological needs satisfaction at recess, level of recess physical activity motivation (RPAM), and recess physical activity (RPA).

METHOD

Fifth-grade children (N = 203; 50.2% boys; 71.7% healthy-weight) completed measures of age, gender, basic psychological need satisfaction, and level of self-determined motivation for RPA. Children also wore pedometers during six consecutive 30-min mid-school-day recesses.

RESULTS

Multiple regression analyses indicated unique significant predictors of RPAM and RPA according to gender and weight status. RPAM was significantly predicted by all three basic psychological needs for boys and only competence need satisfaction for girls and healthy-weight children. RPA was predicted by RPAM for girls, competence need satisfaction for overweight children, and autonomy need satisfaction for boys and healthy-weight children.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings support self-determination theory and provide important insight into the variations in psychological predictors of motivation for RPA and actual physical activity behavior based on gender and weight status.

Maintaining physical activity over time: the importance of basic psychological need satisfaction in developing the physically active self

PURPOSE

Drawing from self-determination theory, this study investigated adults' perceptions of the process of long-term maintenance of physical activity and how it may relate to their self-identity.

DESIGN

Qualitative study included 22 in-depth interviews and participants' recorded personal reflective journals.

SETTING

Health/fitness facility in a Midwestern city.

PARTICIPANTS

Purposeful sample of 12 adult (age range 29-73 years) members who had engaged in regular physical activity for at least 3 years.

METHODS

Data were collected on participants' perceptions of processes associated with physical activity maintenance. Grounded theory data analysis techniques were used to develop an understanding of participants' long-term physical activity adherence. RESULTS. Analysis revealed three themes organized around basic psychological need satisfaction: (1) Relatedness included receiving and giving support. (2) Competence included challenge and competition, managing weight, and strategies for health management. (3) Autonomy included confidence in the established routine, valuing fitness status, and feeling self-directed. The final theme of physically active self included the personal fit of an active lifestyle, identity as an active person, and attachment to physical activity as life enhancing.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that long-term physical activity adherence may be strengthened by promotion of the individual's basic psychological need satisfaction. Adherence is most likely to occur when the value of participation becomes internalized over time as a component of the physically active self.

A longitudinal diary study of the effects of causality orientations on exercise-related affect

According to self-determination theory, a tendency to view causes of a behavior as autonomous, controlled, or impersonal can influence motivation, self-regulation, and experience. We propose that causality orientations for exercise may shape self-determined regulations for exercise by leading to more positive exercise-related affect, leading to greater internalization of exercise behavior and more self-determined regulations to exercise (e.g., regulation on the basis of inherent interest and personally-held values).

Methods

Participants (N = 104) kept an online diary for four weeks documenting exercise behavior and affect experienced during exercise. Exercise causality orientations were measured at baseline and exercise regulations were measured at follow-up. Analyses were performed using multilevel modeling and path analysis.

Results

Exercise-related affect was more positive for those with higher levels of the autonomy orientation and lower levels of the impersonal orientation. Exercise-related affect partially mediated the relationship between autonomy and impersonal orientations and self-determined regulations for exercise.

Conclusions

Affective responses to self-selected exercise were more positive for those who tend to perceive exercise opportunities as more autonomous, which in turn led to more self-determined regulations.

Validation of the Spanish version of the Situational Motivation Scale (EMSI) in the educational context

The purpose of the present research was to translate into Spanish and analyze the psychometricA properties of the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS). The participants were 373 undergraduate students (126 males and 247 females). Factor validity was tested via confirmatory factor analysis. Based on factor loadings and modification indexes, the SIMS was reduced to a 14-item model. This respecification showed adequate internal consistency and construct validity. The multistep analysis of invariance revealed that the factor structure of the SIMS is invariant across gender. Likewise, MANOVA revealed that amotivation was the only significant variable across gender. Predictive validity was assessed through path analysis. The results support the preliminary use of the Spanish version of the SIMS for the assessment of situational motivation in education.

Psychological need fulfillment among workers in an exercise intervention: a qualitative investigation

The purpose of this study was to explore the perceived factors affecting workers'participation in an exercise intervention and interpret the findings within self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000a; 2007). Research examining the impact of psychological need satisfaction on exercise outcomes is not well established (McDonough & Crocke, 2007; Ryan & Deci, 2007). Even less is known about the processes through which workers negotiate a range of individual, group and context-based factors to fulfill these basic needs in exercise settings. To provide such insight, focus group interviews were conducted with 10 factory workers to discuss their involvement in a 7-week exercise intervention. Results indicated that a negotiation of complementary and competing factors (i.e., skill acquisition and regaining physical capabilities, a sense of camaraderie, characteristics of the trainer exercise context, a sense of obligation, scheduling) affected workers' need fulfillment, which ultimately affected their exercise adherence. The implications for health practitioners aiming to meet the psychological needs of workers involved in exercise interventions are discussed.

Preliminary validation in Spanish of a scale designed to measure motivation in physical education classes: the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) Scale

The purpose of this paper was to validate the Spanish version of the Perceived Locus of Causality Scale (PLOC; Goudas, Biddle, & Fox, 1994). To achieve this, two studies with samples of 1535 and 400 physical education students, of ages 12 to 17 years, were carried out. The psychometric properties of the PLOC were examined through the following analyses: confirmatory factor analysis, factor invariance, correlation among factors, reliability (Cronbach's alpha), temporal stability (test-retest), and criterion validity. The results partially supported the five-factor structure. This structure was invariant across the two study samples. Correlations among the subscales indicated a simplex pattern, supporting construct validity of the scale. Alpha values over .70 (except for introjected regulation) and high temporal stability (intra-class correlation coefficient = .83 to .90) over a four-week period were obtained. The mastery-approach goal positively predicted self-determined motivation, whereas the performance-avoidance goal predicted it negatively. Future studies should continue to analyze the psychometric properties of the PLOC, as the validation of an instrument should be an ongoing process.

Relationships among goal orientations, motivational climate and flow in adolescent athletes: differences by gender

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationships among perceived motivational climate, individuals' goal orientations, and dispositional flow, with attention to possible gender differences. A sample of 413 young athletes, ages 12 to 16 years, completed the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2) and Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), as well as the Dispositional Flow Scale. Task orientation was positively and significantly related to a perceived task-involving motivational climate and to the disposition to experience flow in the sport. Ego orientation was positively and significantly associated with a perceived ego-involving motivational climate and with dispositional flow. The perceptions of task-involving and ego-involving motivational climates were positively and significantly linked to general dispositional flow. Multiple regression analysis indicated that both task and ego goal orientations and perceived task- and ego-oriented climates predicted dispositional flow. Males displayed a stronger ego orientation, and were more likely to report that they participated in an ego-oriented climate, than did females. To the contrary, the females were more likely to perceive a task-oriented climate than did the males. No meaningful differences were found between males and females in general dispositional flow.

Impact of a combined resistance and aerobic exercise program on motivational variables in breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Short term exercise interventions have been shown to be beneficial for breast cancer survivors soon after treatments but longer term adherence is needed.

PURPOSE

To examine the effects of a supervised exercise program on motivational variables in breast cancer survivors using Self-Determination Theory (SDT).

METHOD

Sixty breast cancer survivors were randomized in a cross-over design to either an immediate exercise group (IEG; n = 30) that exercised from baseline to week 12 or a delayed exercise group (DEG; n = 30) that exercised from week 12 to 24. SDT variables were assessed at baseline, 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks using the Behavioral Regulation for Exercise Questionniare-2 and the Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight participants completed the follow-up assessments and achieved a 61.3% adherence rate. Analyses of variance revealed significant time by group interactions for almost all psychological needs and motivations that favored the exercise intervention time periods. For example, autonomy increased in the IEG from baseline to 12 weeks by 2.0 points compared to the DEG where scores decreased by 0.1 points (mean group difference = 2.0, p < 0.001). The cross-over results further supported the main findings.

CONCLUSION

Supervised exercise soon after breast cancer treatments may help to develop a positive exercise motivational profile among breast cancer survivors that could portend longer term adherence.

Medical, demographic, and psychosocial correlates of exercise in colorectal cancer survivors: an application of self-determination theory

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate medical, demographic, and psychosocial correlates of exercise in colorectal cancer survivors (CRC-S) using self-determination theory (SDT).

METHODS

Participants were 414 CRC-S who completed a mailed survey that assessed self-reported exercise, medical and demographic variables, and SDT constructs consisting of behavioral regulation for exercise, psychological needs satisfaction in exercise (PNSE), and perceived autonomy support (PAS).

RESULTS

CRC-S with less education were significantly less likely to meet exercise guidelines (21 vs 31%; p < 0.001). Path analysis indicated that SDT and education explained 16% of the variance in exercise behavior with identified regulation (beta = 0.17, p = 0.031), introjected regulation (beta = 0.14, p = 0.006), and education (beta = 0.16, p < 0.001) each making a significant independent contribution.

CONCLUSIONS

Few medical and demographic factors are correlates of regular exercise in CRC-S, but SDT provided a good understanding of exercise behavior in this population. Exercise behavior change interventions incorporating principles of SDT may have utility for promoting exercise and improving outcomes in this important population of cancer survivors.

Are There “Healthy” and “Unhealthy” Reasons for Exercise? Examining Individual Differences in Exercise Motivations Using the Function of Exercise Scale

This study reports the psychometric development of a measure to assess individual differences in exercise motivations using a functionalist strategy (Snyder & Cantor, 1997). Factor analyses revealed two subscales for the newly developed Function of Exercise Scale (FES): Weight and Appearance (WA), and Health and Enjoyment (HE). FES-HE scores correlated with better psychological well-being and predicted prospectively monitored as well as concurrently and longitudinally assessed exercise behavior. FES-HE scores also correlated with lower pulse, systolic blood pressure, and salivary cortisol readings, indicating its association with better physical health. In contrast, FES-WA scores correlated with greater depressive and eating disorder symptoms, as well as lower self-esteem, and predicted the later emergence of eating disorder, but not depressive, symptoms. FES-WA scores failed to show a relationship with measures of physical well-being, including exercise engagement and vital sign data. Overall, the FES appears to hold promise as a succinct and psychometrically sound heuristic for meaningfully relating exercise motivations to important indices of both physical and psychological well-being.

What goes around comes around: re-emerging themes in sport and exercise psychology

Sport and exercise psychology research appearing in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES) over the past 75 years can be characterized by re-emerging themes-hot topics in the 1930s remain hot topics now. Re-emerging themes include sportsmanship/moral development, social development/significant others, self-perceptions, attitudes/motivation, modeling/observational learning, emotion/arousal/anxiety, competition/achievement orientations, and gender roles. Although research paradigms and methodologies have changed, these topics have endured. We also identified dominant emergent themes appearing in RQES over the last 25 years: measurement development and validation; physical activity adoption and adherence; and multidisciplinary approaches to psychological issues. Given the many specialty journals and trends toward integrating models and methods from multiple disciplines, we suggest that RQES adopt a multidisciplinary focus for research in the field of kinesiology.

Relationships between exercise regulations and motivational consequences in university students

The aim of this study was to examine propositions stemming from Self-Determination Theory (SDT) that contend motivational consequences vary as a function of different regulations in the exercise domain. Participants (N = 276; n = 98 men; n = 178 women) completed inventories assessing exercise regulations, current exercise behavior, and behavioral intentions to continue exercising for the next 4 months and the effort and importance associated with exercise participation. Bivariate analyses indicated autonomous exercise regulations (identified and intrinsic) were the strongest correlates of each motivational consequence across both sexes, and introjected regulation was positively associated with exercise consequences in women. Simultaneous multiple regression analyses indicated that exercise regulations accounted for a sizeable portion of the variance across each motivational consequence in both sexes (R2adj values ranged from .20 to .53). Both regression and structure coefficients revealed that introjected regulation was a stronger motivational force in women than men, and identified regulation was the most important predictor of all three motivational consequences in both sexes. Collectively, these findings suggest that exercise regulations differentially predict motivational consequences across sexes, and future research using this theoretical framework for examining motivational issues pertinent to the exercise domain appears warranted.

Factors affecting motivation during the first six weeks of treatment

Since the new conceptualization of motivation as a product of interpersonal exchanges, clinicians and researchers have shown a growing interest in understanding the process of and identifying factors increasing motivation for treatment. Elaborated from the self-determination theory, a motivational model was tested among 140 participants (recruited in a public outpatient readaptation center for substance-related disorders) who persevered in treatment for at least 6 weeks. The results support the usefulness of the self-determination theory in the field of motivation for treatment of substance-related disorders, and suggest some recommendations to enhance motivation: therapists must pay attention to the progression toward goal attainment and foster the perception of competence of their clients; treatment centers should offer a context that supports autonomy and that involves significant others.