Haematological findings in captive Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) with bumblefoot

Capillary Electrophoresis Assessment of Plasma Protein Changes in an African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus) With Aspergillosis

A decrease of avian biodiversity in the African continent has been the result of anthropogenic pressure in the region. This has resulted in the African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) being placed on the endangered species list and requires conservation efforts to maintain its free-ranging population and placement under managed care. In the latter environment, infection by Aspergillus fumigatus can be common. The diagnosis and treatment of this fungal disease in birds has presented with many difficulties, largely due to the diversity and limited knowledge that exists about this species. In this study, we implement a high-resolution capillary electrophoresis system for the fractionation of African penguin plasma, followed by mass spectrometry analysis for the identification of proteins associated with aspergillosis. Several protein differences were revealed, including changes in acute phase proteins and lipid metabolism. In addition, our results demonstrated that fibrinogen β chain is a protein largely present during the inflammatory process in an African penguin infected with A. fumigatus. These findings present a new avenue for the measurement of plasma proteins as a potential method for identifying important biomarkers to aid in monitoring African penguin health.

HEMATOLOGY AND PLASMA CHEMISTRY VALUES IN BEACHED MAGELLANIC PENGUIN (SPHENISCUS MAGELLANICUS) IN NORTHERN ARGENTINA DURING THE NONBREEDING SEASON

Seabirds have been widely used for monitoring the health of the oceans in diverse marine regions. Among low-cost survey strategies, systematic surveys of seabirds beached on coasts have been developed since the 20th century. However, these studies do not always address blood aspects. The assessment of the health status of birds based on the analysis of hematological and plasma chemistry is crucial to evaluate the overall health status profile of live organisms. Here, the authors study the variability of blood parameters by sex, age class, and year of beached Magellanic Penguin during the nonreproductive period in northern Argentina. Of 44 penguins, 77% were categorized as younger juveniles and the rest as older juveniles, and were captured and studied in coastal areas of Buenos Aires Province during the summers of 2017 and 2018. The mean body weight of beached penguins was affected by the age class of the individuals; most of the younger juveniles showed poor condition in terms of body mass (1,761 ± 235 g). No significant differences were observed in body weight between years and sex. Still, there were significant differences between years for alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) values. Twelve of the 20 blood parameters analyzed differ significantly with the age class of the beached penguins; younger juveniles were in a state of inanition. Our results may serve as a necessary first step in improving the conservation status of the Magellanic Penguin in nonbreeding grounds of Argentina, and call for a better knowledge of the health status of the species along its annual cycle.

Influence of biological factors on hematological and serum biochemistry values in captive Adélie, Chinstrap, Gentoo, and Macaroni penguins in Pingtung, Taiwan

Hematology and serum biochemistry reference values are essential for health evaluation and disease diagnosis in penguins. However, there are currently no published physiological values for captive Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae) and Chinstrap penguins (P. antarcticus), nor for wild or captive Macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus). The present study is the first investigation regarding hematology and serum biochemistry reference values for captive Adélie, Gentoo (P. papua), Chinstrap, and Macaroni penguins in Asia. Fixed effect models for repeated measure were applied to determine the influence of penguin species, age, gender, and age-gender interaction on each blood parameter. Hematology and serum biochemical data from 122 apparently healthy penguins (24 Adélie, 38 Chinstrap, 46 Gentoo, and 14 Macaroni) were collected between 2009 and 2014. The effects of penguin species were observed for most blood parameters, except total bilirubin, creatine kinase (CK), creatinine, and potassium ion (K⁺ ). Values of mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), heterophil, ratio of heterophils to lymphocytes (H/L), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and chloride ion (Cl^- ) had significant positive correlation with age, while significant negative correlation with age was observed in total red blood cells (RBCs), lymphocytes, thrombocytes, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), CK, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and plasma iron. Compared to male penguins, females had lower mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) but higher calcium ion (Ca²⁺ ) values. As for age-gender interaction, significant positive correlation was shown in MCHC and K⁺ , and the reverse was true in H/L ratio.

A Case of endoscopic retrieval of a long bamboo stick from a Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti)

An eighteen-month-old female Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) that was 50 cm in length and 4.5 kg in weight was presented with anorexia and vomiting. The hematological and blood biochemical profiles revealed no remarkable findings, and no Salmonella, Shigella or Vibrio spp. were isolated from the fecal culture. However, radiographic imaging revealed a long linear foreign body presenting from the lower esophagus to the stomach. To retrieve this foreign body, flexible endoscopic extraction was performed using flexible rat tooth grasping forceps. A long bamboo stick (29 × 1 cm) was removed from the stomach, and the penguin fully recovered.

Clinical, hematological, total plasma protein and fibrinogen parameters of magellanic penguins ( Spheniscus magellanicus ) pre- and post-rehabilitation

Abstract: Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) usually arrive in poor body conditions at Brazilian beaches during the winter. Hematology provides valuable information about clinical and immunity status of the animals. The aims of this study were to determine the hematologic, total plasma protein (TPP) and fibrinogen profiles of young and adult magellanic penguins in PROAMAR and CETAS-SC, relating these results with the state of health and survival possibility of the animals. In Paraná 14 animals were evaluated in pre and eight in post-rehabilitation and 29 animals were evaluated in Santa Catarina after rehabilitation. Before rehabilitation, all animals showed weakness. In hematological exams of these animals, we found that anemia was present in 83% of the penguins that died and 50% of those which survived. The heterophils/lymphocytes (H/L) ratio was 3.87±0.57 in animals that died, significantly higher than the average of 2.20±0.30 for animals that survived. These two parameters are useful to assess the survival possibility of animals to rehabilitation. The body condition score was positively correlated with hematocrit and TPP, and negatively correlated with H/L ratio. After rehabilitation, the values were similar to other animals of the family Spheniscidae, with averages ranging from 1.64 to 1.90x106 erythrocytes/μL; 43.38 to 48.80% of hematocrit; 12.45 to 13.52g/dL of hemoglobin; 8,684 to 14,011 leukocytes/μL; 4,767 to 8,041 heterophils/μL; 3,215 to 4,951 lymphocytes/μL; 95 to 655 eosinophils/μl; 179.8 to 277.9 monocytes/μL; 141 to 184.9 basophils/μL; and 1.26 to 1.74 of H/L ratio. These parameters can therefore be used as reference values and release parameters for young and adult Magellanic penguins in captivity on the rehabilitation centers.

Wild griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) as a source of Salmonella and Campylobacter in Eastern Spain

The existence of Campylobacter and Salmonella reservoirs in wildlife is a potential hazard to animal and human health; however, the prevalence of these species is largely unknown. Until now, only a few studies have evaluated the presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in wild griffon vultures and based on a small number of birds. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in wild griffon vultures (n = 97) during the normal ringing programme at the Cinctorres Observatory in Eastern Spain. In addition, the effect of ages of individuals (juveniles, subadult and adult) on the presence were compared. Campylobacter was isolated from 1 of 97 (1.0%) griffon vultures and identified as C. jejuni. Salmonella was isolated from 51 of 97 (52.6%) griffon vultures. No significant differences were found between the ages of individuals for the presence of Salmonella. Serotyping revealed 6 different serovars among two Salmonella enterica subspecies; S. enterica subsp. enterica (n = 49, 96.1%) and S. enterica subsp. salamae (n = 2, 3.9%). No more than one serovar was isolated per individual. The serovars isolated were S. Typhimurium (n = 42, 82.3%), S. Rissen (n = 4, 7.8%), S. Senftenberg (n = 3, 5.9%) and S. 4,12:b[-] (n = 2, 3.9%). Our results imply that wild griffon vultures are a risk factor for Salmonella transmission, but do not seem to be a reservoir for Campylobacter. We therefore rule out vultures as a risk factor for human campylobacteriosis. Nevertheless, further studies should be undertaken in other countries to confirm these results.

Haematological and clinical biochemistry findings in captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti)

Haematological and clinical biochemistry values were determined in 15 healthy Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) captured at Isla de Cachagua, V Region, Chile and maintained at the Metropolitan Zoo of Santiago, Chile. Blood samples were obtained at 3 days and 3, 7 and 15 weeks post-capture. The confinement did not affect the red blood cell parameters (RBC, PCV, Hb, MCV, MCHC, P<0.05). Slight changes in the absolute number of heterophils and lymphocytes were observed. Albumin, fibrinogen and glucose values did not change while total plasma proteins and globulin increased significantly (P<0.05) between 3 and 7 weeks post-capture. Aspartate aminotransferase increased (P<0.05) between 3 days and 15 weeks post-capture. The haematological and blood chemistry values of the Humboldt penguins showed some differences compared to the values for other species of penguins reported in the literature.

Hematologic parameters in raptor species in a rehabilitation setting before release

To be considered for release, raptors undergoing rehabilitation must have recovered from their initial injury in addition to being clinically healthy. For that purpose, a good understanding of reference hematologic values is important in determining release criteria for raptors in a rehabilitation setting. In this study, retrospective data were tabulated from clinically normal birds within 10 days of release from a rehabilitation facility. Hematologic values were compiled from 71 red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), 54 Eastern screech owls (Megascops asio), 31 Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii), 30 great-horned owls (Bubo virginianus), 28 barred owls (Strix varia), 16 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and 12 broad-winged hawks (Buteo platypterus). Parameters collected included a white blood cell count and differential, hematocrit, and total protein concentration. Comparisons were made among species and among previously published reports of reference hematologic values in free-ranging birds or permanently captive birds. This is the first published report of reference values for Eastern screech owls, barred owls, and broad-winged hawks; and the first prerelease reference values for all species undergoing rehabilitation. These data can be used as a reference when developing release criteria for rehabilitated raptors.

Immunity and fitness in a wild population of Eurasian kestrels Falco tinnunculus

The immune system of vertebrates consists of several components that partly interact and complement each other. Therefore, the assessment of the overall effectiveness of immune defence requires the simultaneous measurement of different immune components. In this study, we investigated intraspecific variability of innate [i.e. natural antibodies (NAb) and complement] and acquired (i.e. leucocyte profiles) immunity and its relationship with fitness correlates (i.e. blood parasite load and reproductive success in adults and body mass and survival until fledging in nestlings) in the Eurasian kestrel Falco tinnunculus. Immunity differed between nestlings and adults and also between adult males and females. Adult kestrels with higher levels of complement were less parasitised by Haemoproteus, and males with higher values of NAbs showed a higher reproductive success. In nestlings, the H/L ratio was negatively related to body mass. Survival until fledging was predicted by all measured immunological variables of nestlings as well as by their fathers' level of complement. This is the first time that innate immunity is linked to survival in a wild bird. Thus, intraspecific variation in different components of immunity predicts variation in fitness prospects in kestrels, which highlights the importance of measuring innate immune components together with components of the acquired immunity in studies assessing the effectiveness of the immune system in wild animals.

Haematology of wild penguins (spenisciformes) in the Falkland Islands

Haematological values were determined in 50 Rockhopper (Eudyptes crestatus), 19 Gentoo (Pygoscelis papua) and 12 Magellanic (Spheniscus magellanicus) penguins from various sites on the Falkland Islands. Adult Magellanic penguins had significantly lower haemoglobin (Hb) levels, packed cell volumes (PCV) and red cell counts (RBC) than adults of the other two species. Hb, PCV and RBC values were also lower in juvenile birds than in adults and lower in post-moult than in pre-moult adults. Comparison of findings in wild Rockhopper and Gentoo penguins with values obtained from captive birds showed slight but significant differences in Hb and mean cell haemoglobin concentration, and in the relative numbers of heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes and eosinophils present.

Leukocyte changes in diseased non-domestic birds

Abnormal complete blood counts on four birds of prey, three waterfowl, and one pigeon are reported. Heterophil counts exceeding 100 X 10(9)/L were seen in each group of birds, and were associated with chronic infections. Heteropenia with left shift and toxicity was an indicator of poor prognosis, and occurred with terminal disseminated mycotic infection in birds of prey, and disseminated bacterial infection in the other avian patients. Morphologic criteria indicating immaturity and toxicity appeared more important for determining outcome than the magnitude of the heterophilia, and high heterophil counts did not preclude overwhelming fatal infection. Monocytosis occurred in only one bird of prey with a mycotic infection. Criteria similar to those applied to mammalian leukograms appear to correlate with prognosis in avian patients.

Repeatability of condition indices in captive greenfinches (Carduelis chloris)

Animal ecologists often encounter a major problem when they wish to use individual condition indices measured at some point in an animal's life cycle as a reference to some persistent component of individual phenotypic quality. It is therefore important to know the time period for which a certain measurement is valid. We measured both short-term (4–8 days) and long-term (over 4 months) repeatabilities of 17 condition indices in captive greenfinches (Carduelis chloris). All studied traits (leukocyte counts and serum protein concentration and profile, serum triglyceride concentrations, body mass, basal metabolic rate (BMR), and spontaneous locomotory activity) revealed significant and moderate to high repeatabilities within the 4- and 8-day periods. Hence, all these traits are suitable for detecting short-term experimental effects upon an individual's physiology. Leukocyte variables (total leukocyte count, heterophil and lymphocyte hemoconcentrations, and heterophil/lymphocyte ratio), BMR, and body mass revealed significant individual consistency within the 4-month period. These variables thus reflect relatively long-term components of individual condition and may appear suitable for exploring the relationships between individual phenotypic quality, life-history traits, and signal traits.

Health impact of phytohaemagglutinin-induced immune challenge on great tit (Parus major) nestlings

Assuming that immune function is resource-limited, it can be expected to compete with other important functions of an organism for the total resource pool, giving rise to trade-offs in resource allocation. To test whether such a trade-off exists between immune defence and growth, the physiological impact of an immune challenge was examined in great tit (Parus major) nestlings, using phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) as a novel antigen. Nestlings injected intradermally with PHA in wing webs at 8 days of age produced a heterophilic response, while their growth was not suppressed in comparison with untreated control siblings. Nestlings that grew poorly produced a weaker cutaneous response to PHA inoculation than well-growing nestlings. These two results suggest that the response to PHA (a measure of the intensity of T-lymphocyte mediated immune responsiveness) is resource demanding, but these resources are not reallocated from those used for growth. This finding can be reconciled with current hypotheses, which propose that the currency in trade-offs between immune response and other demands on the organism is not necessarily energy or macronutrients but may instead be based on immunopathology, carotenoids, or production of free radicals.

Health and reproduction: the sex-specific clinical profile of great tits (Parus major) in relation to breeding

To describe the changes in clinical profile of individuals that occur during different stages of the reproductive cycle, 17 condition indices including leukocyte counts, plasma protein and metabolite concentrations, hematocrit, and hemoparasite prevalence were examined in prelaying and brood-rearing great tits (Parus major). The metabolic profile pointed to increased fat metabolism during the prebreeding period. Protein metabolism did not indicate nutritional limitation. Prelaying birds had elevated gamma-globulin levels, which may indicate either greater investment in humoral immune defence or, alternatively, greater exposure to immune challenge than for breeders. The sexes did not differ with respect to prevalence of hemoparasites, but females had generally lower albumin/globulin ratios than males, which might indicate a greater predisposition to infectious diseases. Breeding females had higher hematocrit values and heterophile/lymphocyte ratios than males, suggesting that brood rearing imposes a greater work load and exerts greater stress on females. In contrast to the breeding period, males seemed to be more stressed than females prior to egg laying, as indicated by their lower lymphocyte counts and higher heterophile/lymphocyte ratios.