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Mohammadi S, Yang L, Bulbert M, Rowland HM. Defence mitigation by predators of chemically defended prey integrated over the predation sequence and across biological levels with a focus on cardiotonic steroids. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220363. [PMID: 36133149 PMCID: PMC9449480 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions have long served as models for the investigation of adaptation and fitness in natural environments. Anti-predator defences such as mimicry and camouflage provide some of the best examples of evolution. Predators, in turn, have evolved sensory systems, cognitive abilities and physiological resistance to prey defences. In contrast to prey defences which have been reviewed extensively, the evolution of predator counter-strategies has received less attention. To gain a comprehensive view of how prey defences can influence the evolution of predator counter-strategies, it is essential to investigate how and when selection can operate. In this review we evaluate how predators overcome prey defences during (i) encounter, (ii) detection, (iii) identification, (iv) approach, (v) subjugation, and (vi) consumption. We focus on prey that are protected by cardiotonic steroids (CTS)-defensive compounds that are found in a wide range of taxa, and that have a specific physiological target. In this system, coevolution is well characterized between specialist insect herbivores and their host plants but evidence for coevolution between CTS-defended prey and their predators has received less attention. Using the predation sequence framework, we organize 574 studies reporting predators overcoming CTS defences, integrate these counter-strategies across biological levels of organization, and discuss the costs and benefits of attacking CTS-defended prey. We show that distinct lineages of predators have evolved dissecting behaviour, changes in perception of risk and of taste perception, and target-site insensitivity. We draw attention to biochemical, hormonal and microbiological strategies that have yet to be investigated as predator counter-adaptations to CTS defences. We show that the predation sequence framework will be useful for organizing future studies of chemically mediated systems and coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Mohammadi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
- Institut für Zell- und Systembiologie der Tiere, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Lu Yang
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Matthew Bulbert
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Oxford Brookes, Oxford, UK
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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Mohammadi S, Yang L, Bulbert M, Rowland HM. Defence mitigation by predators of chemically defended prey integrated over the predation sequence and across biological levels with a focus on cardiotonic steroids. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220363. [PMID: 36133149 DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.c.6168216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions have long served as models for the investigation of adaptation and fitness in natural environments. Anti-predator defences such as mimicry and camouflage provide some of the best examples of evolution. Predators, in turn, have evolved sensory systems, cognitive abilities and physiological resistance to prey defences. In contrast to prey defences which have been reviewed extensively, the evolution of predator counter-strategies has received less attention. To gain a comprehensive view of how prey defences can influence the evolution of predator counter-strategies, it is essential to investigate how and when selection can operate. In this review we evaluate how predators overcome prey defences during (i) encounter, (ii) detection, (iii) identification, (iv) approach, (v) subjugation, and (vi) consumption. We focus on prey that are protected by cardiotonic steroids (CTS)-defensive compounds that are found in a wide range of taxa, and that have a specific physiological target. In this system, coevolution is well characterized between specialist insect herbivores and their host plants but evidence for coevolution between CTS-defended prey and their predators has received less attention. Using the predation sequence framework, we organize 574 studies reporting predators overcoming CTS defences, integrate these counter-strategies across biological levels of organization, and discuss the costs and benefits of attacking CTS-defended prey. We show that distinct lineages of predators have evolved dissecting behaviour, changes in perception of risk and of taste perception, and target-site insensitivity. We draw attention to biochemical, hormonal and microbiological strategies that have yet to be investigated as predator counter-adaptations to CTS defences. We show that the predation sequence framework will be useful for organizing future studies of chemically mediated systems and coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Mohammadi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
- Institut für Zell- und Systembiologie der Tiere, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Lu Yang
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Matthew Bulbert
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Oxford Brookes, Oxford, UK
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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Aiyer A, Shine R, Somaweera R, Bell T, Ward-Fear G. Shifts in the foraging tactics of crocodiles following invasion by toxic prey. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1267. [PMID: 35075144 PMCID: PMC8786828 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03629-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological invasions can modify the behaviour of vulnerable native species in subtle ways. For example, native predators may learn or evolve to reduce foraging in conditions (habitats, times of day) that expose them to a toxic invasive species. In tropical Australia, freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) are often fatally poisoned when they ingest invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina). The risk may be greatest if toads are seized on land, where a predator cannot wash away the toxins before they are absorbed into its bloodstream. Hence, toad invasion might induce crocodiles to forage in aquatic habitats only, foregoing terrestrial hunting. To test this idea, we conducted standardised trials of bait presentation to free-ranging crocodiles in sites with and without invasive toads. As anticipated, crocodiles rapidly learned to avoid consuming toads, and shifted to almost exclusively aquatic foraging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhilasha Aiyer
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Richard Shine
- School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Ruchira Somaweera
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Tina Bell
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Georgia Ward-Fear
- School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia.
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Bringsøe H, Suthanthangjai M, Suthanthangjai W, Nimnuam K. Eviscerated alive: Novel and macabre feeding strategy in Oligodon fasciolatus (Günther, 1864) eating organs of Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) in Thailand. HERPETOZOA 2020. [DOI: 10.3897/herpetozoa.33.e57096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A hitherto unknown feeding mode among snakes is described for the colubrid snake Oligodon fasciolatus in Northeast Thailand. Three cases of O. fasciolatus using enlarged posterior maxillary teeth to cut open the abdomen of a live poisonous toad Duttaphrynus melanostictus and eat its organs are described. The snakes and toads fought vigorously, and the toads secreted toxic white liquid on the dorsum and neck. The snakes inserted their heads into the abdomen of the toads, pulled out some of the organs and swallowed them. The snakes and toads were adults. All three cases were documented by extensive photographic material.
In a fourth case from Central Thailand, an adult O. fasciolatus was observed swallowing an entire semi-adult D. melanostictus.
The majority of all snake species swallow their prey in one piece, but to place our observations in a broader context we review a number of exceptions.
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Smiroldo G, Gariano P, Balestrieri A, Manenti R, Pini E, Tremolada P. Predation on Amphibians May Enhance Eurasian Otter Recovery in Southern Italy. Zoolog Sci 2019; 36:273-283. [PMID: 34664897 DOI: 10.2108/zs180147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mediterranean freshwaters undergo extreme seasonal variation in water flow, which, exacerbated by water withdrawal for agriculture or hydroelectric purposes, may affect fish communities and thus prey availability for semi-aquatic predators, such as Eurasian otter Lutra lutra. To investigate the role played by food availability on the ongoing recovery of an otter population at the southernmost limit of its Italian range, we assessed otter diet by the analysis of 357 spraints collected from 2014 to 2017 on eight rivers, and both fish and amphibian availability by, respectively, electrofishing and visual encounter surveys. Fish and amphibians formed the bulk of otter diet, the latter resource contributing as much as fish to otter diet in spring. Use by otters of both fish and amphibians depended only fish availability, suggesting that amphibians constituted an alternative resource to be exploited in conditions of fish shortage. Accordingly, electrofishing showed that fish biomass may barely be sufficient to sustain the current otter population. ATR-FT-IR spectroscopy allowed to point out for the first time the occurrence of amphibian eggs in otter spraints, although the co-occurrence of anuran bones did not allow to discriminate between direct and passive predation. Overall results indicate that the expansion or even survival of this small otter population may depend on the effective management of water resources and reinforcement of fish assemblages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Smiroldo
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, University of Milan, I-20133 Milan, Italy,
| | | | - Alessandro Balestrieri
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, University of Milan, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Raoul Manenti
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, University of Milan, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Pini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche - Sezione di Chimica Generale e Organica "A. Marchesini", Università di Milano, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Tremolada
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, University of Milan, I-20133 Milan, Italy
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