1
|
Xiong J, Ma H, Ma R, Xu T, Wang Y. The relationship between perceived stress and prolonged grief disorder among Chinese Shidu parents: effects of anxiety and social support. BMC Psychiatry 2023; 23:714. [PMID: 37784043 PMCID: PMC10546787 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-023-05206-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Shidu parents refer to the couple who have lost their only child and have not given birth or adopted another child in China. The number of Shidu parents is increasing annually. The aim of this research was to examine the mediating role of anxiety and the moderating role of social support between perceived stress and prolonged grief disorder (PGD) among Chinese Shidu parents. METHODS A cross-sectional study was carried out with 505 participants who completed a questionnaire including the Prolonged Grief Questionnair-3 (PG-13), the Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10), the Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS) and the Duke-UNC Functional Social Support Questionnaire (FSSQ). SPSS PROCESS macro was employed to examine the mediating role of anxiety and the moderating role of social support. RESULTS The mediation analysis showed anxiety partially mediated the link between perceived stress and PGD, and the proportion of mediation of anxiety was 39.22%. The moderated mediation analysis revealed the second stage of mediating effects of anxiety on the link between perceived stress and PGD was moderated by social support. Specifically, compared with Shidu parents with higher social support, the association between anxiety and PGD was closer for those with lower social support. CONCLUSIONS The moderated mediation model can broaden our understanding of how and when perceived stress, anxiety and social support work together to affect PGD. The interventions aimed at improving mental health of Chinese Shidu parents need to work on reducing stress and enhancing social support.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiexi Xiong
- Department of Social Medicine, College of Health Management, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New District, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110122, P.R. China
| | - Hongfei Ma
- Department of Social Medicine, College of Health Management, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New District, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110122, P.R. China
| | - Ruiyao Ma
- Department of Social Medicine, College of Health Management, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New District, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110122, P.R. China
| | - Tianhui Xu
- Department of Social Medicine, College of Health Management, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New District, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110122, P.R. China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Social Medicine, College of Health Management, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New District, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110122, P.R. China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ennis N, Bottomley J, Sawyer J, Moreland AD, Rheingold AA. Measuring Grief in the Context of Traumatic Loss: A Systematic Review of Assessment Instruments. TRAUMA, VIOLENCE & ABUSE 2023; 24:2346-2362. [PMID: 35616367 PMCID: PMC9699905 DOI: 10.1177/15248380221093694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Following traumatic loss, defined as the death of a loved one due to unexpected or violent circumstances, adults may experience a myriad of grief-related problems. Given the addition of Prolonged Grief Disorders into the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders Fifth Edition, Text-Revision and influx of unexpected deaths due to the global Coronavirus pandemic, there is heightened interest in the measurement of grief-related processes. We conducted a systematic review according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to identify measures of grief used in studies of adults who experienced traumatic loss. Searches yielded 164 studies that used 31 unique measures of grief-related constructs. The most commonly used instrument was the Inventory of Complicated Grief-Revised. Half of the measures assessed constructs beyond diagnosable pathological grief responses. Given the wide variation and adaptations of measures reviewed, we recommend greater testing and uniformity of measurement across the field. Future research is needed to adapt and/or design measures to evaluate new criteria for Prolonged Grief Disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Ennis
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Jamison Bottomley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | | | - Angela D. Moreland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Alyssa A. Rheingold
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Soydas S, Smid GE, Lenferink LIM, Djelantik AAMJ, Goodfellow B, Wilson R, Boelen PA. Psychopathology in a treatment-seeking sample of homicidally bereaved individuals: Latent class analysis. J Affect Disord 2021; 292:234-241. [PMID: 34134021 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Violently bereaved individuals are at increased risk of developing severe and comorbid disorders. Comorbidity may increase psychiatric symptom severity and suicide risk and decrease psychosocial functioning compared with having one disorder. We aimed to identify subgroups of individuals with similar symptom patterns, describe prevalence rates and overall levels of prolonged grief disorder (PGD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) per class, and explore associations between class membership and personal and homicide related variables. METHODS We investigated the comorbidity of symptoms of PGD, PTSD, MDD, and GAD in a sample of 923 treatment-seeking homicidally bereaved individuals by deploying latent class analysis. RESULTS Three subgroups were identified: (i) a moderate distress, low depression class (12.4%), (ii) a high distress, moderate depression class (42.7%), and (iii) a high distress and high depression class (45.0%). Prevalence rates and total scores of the questionnaires followed the pattern of iii ≥ ii ≥ i (ps ≤ .001). Being female and having experienced prior life stress distinguished between all classes (ps ≤ .05). LIMITATIONS The data-driven analytic approach and reliance on self-reported routine outcome monitoring data limit the generalizability and validity of the study. Strengths include the large sample size and the inclusion of four measures in a treatment-seeking, violently bereaved sample. CONCLUSIONS Classes were most clearly distinguishable based on symptom severity, indicating high comorbidity following bereavement by homicide. This argues for an integrated treatment that targets different complaints simultaneously rather than successively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suzan Soydas
- Utrecht University, Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht, the Netherlands; ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, the Netherlands.
| | - Geert E Smid
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, the Netherlands; University of Humanistic Studies, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lonneke I M Lenferink
- Utrecht University, Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht, the Netherlands; University of Groningen, Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, Groningen, the Netherlands; University of Twente, Department of Psychology, Health, & Technology, Faculty of Behavioural, Management, and Social Sciences, Enschede, the Netherlands
| | - A A Manik J Djelantik
- University Medical Centre Utrecht, Department of Psychiatry, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Altrecht GGZ, Department Youth - KOOS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Rachel Wilson
- ASSIST Trauma Care, Rugby, the United Kingdom; NHS England, Liverpool, the United Kingdom
| | - Paul A Boelen
- Utrecht University, Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht, the Netherlands; ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Psychometric properties of the German version of the Depressive and Anxious Avoidance in Prolonged Grief Questionnaire (DAAPGQ). PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254959. [PMID: 34375341 PMCID: PMC8354469 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Depressive and Anxious Avoidance in Prolonged Grief Questionnaire (DAAPGQ) was developed to measure depressive and anxious avoidance behaviors, which, according to cognitive-behavioral models, are supposed to play an important role in the development and maintenance of prolonged grief. The present study aimed to develop a German version of the DAAPGQ and evaluate its psychometric properties and validity within a representative sample of the German general population (N = 2531). The German-language DAAPGQ was developed using a forward-backward translation procedure. Then, a subsample of individuals who reported having lost a significant other (N = 1371) of a representative sample was assessed with the German DAAPGQ, along with information on sociodemographic characteristics, prolonged grief symptom severity (PG-13), general anxiety (GAD-2) and depression (PHQ-2). The factor structure of the DAAPGQ was evaluated using confirmatory factor analyses, reliability by calculating internal consistency on subscale level and convergent validity by correlations between DAAPQG subscale sores with PG-13, GAD-2 and PHQ-2 sum scores. As expected, a two-factor model with correlated latent variables showed good fit to the data, replicating findings from the original version. Internal consistency was high for both subscales (Cronbach’s α .86 and .95, respectively). Convergent validity was established by theoretically expected and statistically significant positive correlations of DAAPGQ subscales with symptom severity of prolonged grief, depression, and anxiety and negative correlations with time since loss. Furthermore, the addition of depressive and anxious avoidance significantly improved the prediction of prolonged grief symptom severity over sociodemographic and loss-related information. In sum, our results suggest that the German-language DAAPGQ is a reliable and valid measure of depressive and anxious avoidance and a useful tool to improve our knowledge on the role of avoidance in prolonged grief. We also provide descriptive data to improve the applicability of the DAAPGQ for individual diagnostics.
Collapse
|
5
|
Peña-Vargas C, Armaiz-Peña G, Castro-Figueroa E. A Biopsychosocial Approach to Grief, Depression, and the Role of Emotional Regulation. Behav Sci (Basel) 2021; 11:110. [PMID: 34436100 PMCID: PMC8389251 DOI: 10.3390/bs11080110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
According to the field of affective neuroscience, grief has been identified as one of the seven primary emotions necessary for human survival. However, maladaptive grief could cause significant impairment in an individual's life, leading to psychopathologies such as major depressive disorder. Research on grief has shifted to a biopsychosocial approach, leaving behind outdated models-such as the Kübler-Ross theory-that have shown poor consistency. The field of psychoneuroimmunology has identified adverse life events such as social loss as being associated with major depressive disorder, and inflammatory processes in chronic health conditions. Likewise, scientists in the field of affective neuroscience have theorized that prolonged and sustained activation of the grief neurological pathway can cause a cascade of neurotransmitters that inhibits the reward-seeking system, causing symptoms of depression. The objective of this review is to highlight findings on the grief process using a biopsychosocial approach to explore grief's impact on psychopathophysiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Peña-Vargas
- Ponce’s Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, PR 00716, USA
| | | | - Eida Castro-Figueroa
- School of behavioral and Brain Sciences, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, PR 00716, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wittkowski J, Scheuchenpflug R. Evidence on the Conceptual Distinctness of Normal Grief From Depression. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1027/2512-8442/a000077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. Background: The distinctness of grief from depression has been the subject of a long scholarly debate, even influencing definitions of diagnostic criteria. Aims: This study aims at clarifying the issue by a multifaceted analysis of data from a large German sample. Method: A community sample of 406 bereaved persons answered the Wuerzburg Grief Inventory (WGI), a multidimensional grief questionnaire designed to measure normal grief in the German language, and the General Depression Scale – Short Version (GDS-S), a self-report depression scale. Data were analyzed by factor analysis to identify structural (dis-)similarities of the constructs, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify the influence of the factors relationship to the deceased, type of death, and time since loss on grief measures and depression scores. Results: Factor analysis clustered items referring to grief-related impairments and depression into one factor, items referring to other dimensions of grief on separate factors, however. Relationship to the deceased influenced the grief measures impairments and nearness to the deceased, but not depression scores if controlled for impairments. Type of death showed specific effects on grief scores, but not on depression scores. Time since loss influenced grief scores, but not depression scores. Limitations: The analysis is based on a self-selected community sample of grieving persons, self-report measures, and in part, on cross-sectional data. Conclusion: Factor analysis and objective data show a clear distinction of dimensions of grief and depression. The human experience of grief contains a sense of nearness to the lost person, feelings of guilt, and positive aspects of the loss experience in addition to components resembling depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Wittkowski
- Institute of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-Universität of Würzburg, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kokou-Kpolou CK, Park S, Lenferink LIM, Iorfa SK, Fernández-Alcántara M, Derivois D, Cénat JM. Prolonged grief and depression: A latent class analysis. Psychiatry Res 2021; 299:113864. [PMID: 33756206 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Recent trends in grief research have been exploring how symptoms of prolonged grief disorder (PGD) and depression co-occur in bereaved individuals using Latent Class Analysis (LCA). However, the PGD criteria have kept undergoing changes and the newest DSM-5 PGD criteria have not been captured in these studies. Also, previous LCA-grief studies have been conducted in Western cultures, focusing more on bereaved adult populations. In this study, we applied LCA on a non-Western sample of bereaved young and middle-aged adults to examine whether the consistently observed 3 latent classes will emerge. We explored if the socio-demographic, loss-related factors, religiousness, spirituality, and continuing bond to the deceased, differentiated the latent classes. We confirmed the 3 latent classes comprising the Resilient class (20.6%), the predominantly PGD class (44.7%), and the combined PGD and Depression class (34.7%). Age, time elapsed since the loss, continuing bond and relationship with the deceased as well as spiritual beliefs were the differential predictors of class membership. This study increases our conceptual and clinical understanding of the predictability of PGD symptomology outcome, according to the newest DSM-5 criteria following bereavement in a non-Western sample. In addition to the continuing bond which was the strongest correlate, attention should be paid to important sociocultural frameworks in grief management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cyrille Kossigan Kokou-Kpolou
- Department of Psychology, University of Picardy Jules Verne, France.; School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Sunyoung Park
- Graduate School of Psychology, California Lutheran University, Thousand Oaks, US
| | - Lonneke I M Lenferink
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Daniel Derivois
- Laboratory of Psychology Psy-DREPI (EA 7458), Université Bourgogne Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Co-occurrence of prolonged grief symptoms and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress in bereaved adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF AFFECTIVE DISORDERS REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
|
9
|
Zhang H, Shang Z, Wu L, Sun Z, Zhang F, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prolonged grief disorder in Chinese Shidu parents who have lost their only child. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2020; 11:1726071. [PMID: 32158517 PMCID: PMC7048219 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2020.1726071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: China has the largest population of '"loss-of-only-child' parents, that are also known as Shidu parents in Chinese society; however, little is known about their unresolved grief. Objective: This is the first study to examine the grief symptoms, prevalence, comorbidity and potential predictors of prolonged grief disorder (PGD) in such parents, taking into consideration that the new PGD diagnostic criteria ICD-11 will soon be implemented in China. Methods: 149 Shidu parents completed assessments of PGD (PG-13), PTSD (PCL-C), depression (CES-D) and general psychiatric morbidity (GHQ-12) via in-person interviews. Results: Of the 149 Shidu parents, 22.2% met the PGD criteria, with a mean of 7.59 years post-loss, and 62.4% experienced daily longing or yearning. Regression analysis indicated that fewer years since loss, subjective perception of poor economic situation, female gender and more hospital visits were prominent risk factors for the development of PGD. Older age of the parents at the time of child loss was also associated with PGD. Parents with PGD had higher comorbidity of PTSD or depression compared with those without PGD. Conclusions: There is a high prevalence of PGD and a high rate of comorbidity between PGD and PTSD or depression in Shidu parents in China, which highlights the need of timely developing effective assessments and interventions to prevent PGD in this population, particularly in female, recently bereaved, low-income and aged parents who lost their only child.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huaihui Zhang
- Shanghai Yangpu Mental Health Center, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences Teaching Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhilei Shang
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lili Wu
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhuoer Sun
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Luna Sun
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yaoguang Zhou
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Wang
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weizhi Liu
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Heeke C, Kampisiou C, Niemeyer H, Knaevelsrud C. A systematic review and meta-analysis of correlates of prolonged grief disorder in adults exposed to violent loss. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2019; 10:1583524. [PMID: 30949303 PMCID: PMC6442112 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2019.1583524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Violent loss (i.e. loss through homicide, suicide, or accident) is associated with high levels of prolonged grief disorder (PGD). Objective: The current meta-analysis aims at identifying correlates of PGD in adults exposed to violent loss. Method: We conducted a systematic literature search in PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. We used the Pearson correlation coefficient r as an effect size measure and a random effects model was applied to calculate effect sizes. Results: Thirty-seven eligible studies published between 2003 and 2017 (N = 5911) revealed 29 potential correlates. Most studies used a cross-sectional design. Analyses revealed large significant effect sizes for comorbid psychopathology (r = .50-.59), suicidality (r = .41, 95% confidence interval [CI] [.30; .52]), and rumination (r = .42, 95% CI [.31; .52]), while medium effect sizes were found for exposure to traumatic events and factors concerning the relationship to the deceased. Small effect sizes emerged for sociodemographic characteristics, multiple loss, physical symptoms, and religious beliefs. Ten variables did not show a significant association with PGD. Heterogeneity and a small number of studies assessing certain correlates were observed. Conclusions: The associations with psychological disorders may indicate shared mechanisms of psychopathology. Moreover, we recommend that clinicians carefully assess suicidal ideation among individuals with PGD who have been exposed to violent loss. Further research is warranted using longitudinal study designs with large sample sizes to understand the relevance of these factors for the development of PGD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carina Heeke
- Department of Clinical-Psychological Intervention, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Research Department, Center Überleben gGmbH, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Kampisiou
- Department of Clinical-Psychological Intervention, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Helen Niemeyer
- Department of Clinical-Psychological Intervention, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christine Knaevelsrud
- Department of Clinical-Psychological Intervention, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kliem S, Lohmann A, Mößle T, Kröger C, Brähler E, Kersting A. The latent nature of prolonged grief - A taxometric analysis: Results from a representative population sample. Psychiatry Res 2018; 260:400-405. [PMID: 29253804 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.11.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Individuals suffering from prolonged grief disorder (PGD) show severe grief reactions after the death of a significant other, even beyond a period of grieving that is within a person's cultural and religious context. In addition to this core element, PGD can manifest in various ways. Symptoms may include persistent preoccupation, intense emotional pain, or impairment in important life domains. The symptoms, furthermore, have to be of culturally or religiously inappropriate extent or severity, taking into account different norms of grieving. PGD is discussed as a distinct diagnostic category in the revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). Nosology of PGD has been highly debated surrounding the suggested inclusion in the DSM-5, which had been declined due to insufficient evidence. This paper addresses the latent nature of PGD. Using a short form of the Inventory of Complicated Grief-Revised (ICG-R), we applied three popular taxometric methods: MAXEIG, MAMBAC and L-Mode. Data stemmed from a subsample of N = 1445 bereaved individuals that participated in a large representative German population survey (N = 2520). The analysis strongly indicated a dimensional latent structure of PGD. Implications of the conceptualization of PGD on a continuum are discussed, regarding measurement, diagnosis, etiology and future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sören Kliem
- Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony, Lützerodestraße 9, 30161 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Anna Lohmann
- Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony, Lützerodestraße 9, 30161 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Thomas Mößle
- State Police College of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Sturmbühlstraße 250, 78054 Villingen-Schwenningen, Germany.
| | - Christoph Kröger
- Institute of Psychology, University of Hildesheim, Universitätsplatz 1, 31141 Hildesheim, Germany; Institute of Psychology, University of Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.19, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Elmar Brähler
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University of Mainz, Untere Zahlbacher Str. 8, 55131 Mainz, Germany; Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University of Leipzig, Philipp-Rosenthal-Str. 55, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anette Kersting
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University of Leipzig, Philipp-Rosenthal-Str. 55, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
de Heus A, Hengst SMC, de la Rie SM, Djelantik AAAMJ, Boelen PA, Smid GE. Day patient treatment for traumatic grief: preliminary evaluation of a one-year treatment programme for patients with multiple and traumatic losses. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2017; 8:1375335. [PMID: 29038679 PMCID: PMC5632766 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2017.1375335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Bereaved individuals who have lost a loved one under traumatic circumstances can develop symptoms of Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder (PCBD) and/or Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). This is particularly common in refugees, as they frequently have been confronted with multiple traumatic losses. For patients with severe PTSD and traumatic grief a treatment programme was developed, embedding individual traumatic grief focused therapy in a group-based multidisciplinary day patient treatment programme. The day patient treatment comprised a weekly five-hour programme consisting of three phases with a duration of four months each. Objective: To evaluate the feasibility and potential effectiveness of the treatment programme. Method: Data were analyzed from 16 participants treated between October 2013 and March 2014. PTSD severity and PTSD/PCBD diagnoses were measured during the initial and final phases of treatment using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-IV (CAPS) and the Traumatic Grief Inventory Self Report (TGI-SR). One clinical case is presented in more detail. Treatment attendance was also registered and therapist satisfaction was evaluated in a focus group. Results: Thirteen patients (81%) completed the treatment. Each day of the treatment programme was attended by a mean of 76% of the participants. In the focus group, therapists noted symptom reduction in their patients and they therefore regarded Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy for Traumatic Grief (BEP-TG) as an effective therapy for their patients. During treatment, significant decreases in PTSD severity as well as diagnosable PTSD and PCBD were observed. Conclusions: Results support the feasibility and potential effectiveness of the day patient treatment programme for traumatic grief. The programme appears to be particularly suitable for refugees with severe PTSD and PCBD psychopathology, who may not benefit enough from usual care.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annemiek de Heus
- Foundation Centrum '45, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie M C Hengst
- Foundation Centrum '45, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Simone M de la Rie
- Foundation Centrum '45, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - A A A Manik J Djelantik
- Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul A Boelen
- Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Geert E Smid
- Foundation Centrum '45, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Smid GE, Kleber RJ, de la Rie SM, Bos JBA, Gersons BPR, Boelen PA. Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy for Traumatic Grief (BEP-TG): toward integrated treatment of symptoms related to traumatic loss. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2015; 6:27324. [PMID: 26154434 PMCID: PMC4495623 DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v6.27324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2015] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatic events such as disasters, accidents, war, or criminal violence are often accompanied by the loss of loved ones, and may then give rise to traumatic grief. Traumatic grief refers to a clinical diagnosis of persistent complex bereavement disorder (PCBD) with comorbid (symptoms of) posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and/or major depressive disorder (MDD) following confrontation with a traumatic loss. Trauma survivors, who are frequently from different cultural backgrounds, have often experienced multiple losses and ambiguous loss (missing family members or friends). Current evidence-based treatments for PTSD do not focus on traumatic grief. OBJECTIVE To develop a treatment for traumatic grief combining treatment interventions for PTSD and PCBD that may accommodate cultural aspects of grief. METHOD To provide a rationale for treatment, we propose a cognitive stress model of traumatic grief. Based on this model and on existing evidence-based treatments for PTSD and complicated grief, we developed Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy for Traumatic Grief (BEP-TG) for the treatment of patients with traumatic grief. The treatment is presented along with a case vignette. RESULTS Processes contributing to traumatic grief include inadequately integrating the memory of the traumatic loss, negative appraisal of the traumatic loss, sensitivity to matching triggers and new stressors, and attempting to avoid distress. BEP-TG targets these processes. The BEP-TG protocol consists of five parts with proven effectiveness in the treatment of PCBD, PTSD, and MDD: information and motivation, grief-focused exposure, memorabilia and writing assignments, finding meaning and activation, and a farewell ritual. CONCLUSION Tailored to fit the needs of trauma survivors, BEP-TG can be used to address traumatic grief symptoms related to multiple losses and ambiguous loss, as well as cultural aspects of bereavement through its different components.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Geert E Smid
- Foundation Centrum '45/Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands;
| | - Rolf J Kleber
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Simone M de la Rie
- Foundation Centrum '45/Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Jannetta B A Bos
- Foundation Centrum '45/Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Berthold P R Gersons
- Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group, Diemen, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul A Boelen
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
He L, Tang S, Yu W, Xu W, Xie Q, Wang J. The prevalence, comorbidity and risks of prolonged grief disorder among bereaved Chinese adults. Psychiatry Res 2014; 219:347-52. [PMID: 24924526 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Revised: 04/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Few epidemiological studies have investigated prolonged grief disorder (PGD) in the general population of Asian countries, including China. The aim of this study was to explore the rates and risks of PGD, and the association between PGD, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety in bereaved Chinese adults. The PG-13, PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C), Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) and Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS) were administered to 445 subjects. Prevalence within the general population of China was 1.8% (i.e., 8/445). Among the eight subjects who met the PGD diagnosis, 75%, 87.5% and 75% scored above the cut-off point on the PCL-C, SDS and SAS, respectively, although a portion remained free from comorbidity. ANOVA, correlation analysis and stepwise multiple regression analysis demonstrated that kinship to deceased, age of the deceased, religion belief and cause of death were predictive of prolonged grief. A small proportion of bereaved persons may exhibit PGD. There is a substantial but far from complete overlap between PGD and the other three diagnoses. Bereaved parents and the widowed have high risk of PGD. These findings highlight the need for prevention, diagnosis and treatment for PGD patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li He
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Suqin Tang
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Wei Yu
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Wei Xu
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Qiuyuan Xie
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Jianping Wang
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, PR China; Capital Medical University, Beijing 100088, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
|
16
|
Schaal S, Richter A, Elbert T. Prolonged grief disorder and depression in a German community sample. DEATH STUDIES 2014; 38:476-481. [PMID: 24758218 DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2013.809032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to examine rates and risk factors for prolonged grief and to investigate the association between prolonged grief and depression. The authors interviewed a heterogeneous bereaved sample of 61 Germans, 6 of whom had prolonged grief and depression, respectively. The 2 syndromes were strongly linked to one another. Risk factors for prolonged grief were being a woman and having high levels of religious beliefs and low levels of satisfaction with one's religious beliefs, emotional closeness to the deceased, and unanticipated loss. Symptoms of prolonged grief may endure years post-loss and often overlap with depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Schaal
- a Department of Psychology , University of Konstanz , Konstanz , Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
In this paper, I propose that the politicization of grief falls into 3 categories of what I have termed different types of Mourning Sickness. In Mourning Sickness Type I, the politicization of grief functions to discipline the individual mourner's body into a productive, functioning, and contributing member of a capitalistic society. Moreover, I argue that the individualist ethos that pathologizes grief neuters the rage that can come with mourning and turns the gaze away from social injustices such as poverty, imprisonment, and opportunity gaps that are caused by state neglect. In Mourning Sickness Type II, I suggest that the politicization of grief is about consciously manipulating individual and collective grief in the service of nationalism and military power. The manipulation of grief on this level includes the explicit links made between loss and grief and justification for war, aggression, and violence, but also includes the distinctions made between whose lives are deemed grievable and whose lives are considered worthless and unmournable. Both Mourning Sickness Types I and II are of the pathological variety urgently requiring academic and public critique. In the last type of Mourning Sickness, I suggest that grief is also politicized when it is activated as a motivator toward a social justice agenda that includes peace, reconciliation, nonviolence, and positive social change on behalf of individuals, communities, and nations.
Collapse
|