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Wang WY, Ni JY, Huang SH, Cui QW, Wang YQ, Gu ZQ, Li YF. Hyposalinity stress reduces mussel byssus secretion but does not cause detachment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 930:172561. [PMID: 38641104 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Environmental stressors such as salinity fluctuations can significantly impact the ecological dynamics of mussel beds. The present study evaluated the influence of hyposalinity stress on the detachment and survival of attached mussels by simulating a mussel farming model in a laboratory setting. Byssus production and mechanical properties of thread in response to varying salinity levels were assessed, and histological sections of the mussel foot were analyzed to identify the changes in the byssus secretory gland area. The results showed that hyposalinity stress (20 and 15 psu) led to a significant decrease in mussel byssus secretion, delayed initiation of new byssus production, and reduced plaque adhesion strength and breaking force of byssal threads compared to the control (30 psu) (p < 0.05). The complete suppression of byssal thread secretion in mussels under salinity conditions of 10 and 5 psu, leading to lethality, indicates the presence of a blockade in byssus secretion when mussels are subjected to significant physiological stressors. Histological analysis further demonstrated a decrease in the percentage of foot secretory gland areas in mussels exposed to low salinities. However, contrary to expectations, the study found that mussels did not exhibit marked detachment from ropes in response to the reduced salinity levels during one week of exposure. Hyposalinity stress exposure reduced the byssal secretion capacity and the mechanical properties of threads, which could be a cause for the detachment of suspension-cultured mussels. These results highlight the vulnerability of mussels to hyposalinity stress, which significantly affects their byssus mechanical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Yi Wang
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ji-Yue Ni
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shi-Hui Huang
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qian-Wen Cui
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu-Qing Wang
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhong-Qi Gu
- Shengsi County Aquaculture Service Center, Zhoushan, China.
| | - Yi-Feng Li
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China.
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James BD, Kimmins KM, Nguyen MT, Lausch AJ, Sone ED. Attachment of zebra and quagga mussel adhesive plaques to diverse substrates. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23998. [PMID: 34907241 PMCID: PMC8671477 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03227-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Like marine mussels, freshwater zebra and quagga mussels adhere via the byssus, a proteinaceous attachment apparatus. Attachment to various surfaces allows these invasive mussels to rapidly spread, however the adhesion mechanism is not fully understood. While marine mussel adhesion mechanics has been studied at the individual byssal-strand level, freshwater mussel adhesion has only been characterized through whole-mussel detachment, without direct interspecies comparisons on different substrates. Here, adhesive strength of individual quagga and zebra mussel byssal plaques were measured on smooth substrates with varying hydrophobicity-glass, PVC, and PDMS. With increased hydrophobicity of substrates, adhesive failures occurred more frequently, and mussel adhesion strength decreased. A new failure mode termed 'footprint failure' was identified, where failure appeared to be adhesive macroscopically, but a microscopic residue remained on the surface. Zebra mussels adhered stronger and more frequently on PDMS than quagga mussels. While their adhesion strengths were similar on PVC, there were differences in the failure mode and the plaque-substrate interface ultrastructure. Comparisons with previous marine mussel studies demonstrated that freshwater mussels adhere with comparable strength despite known differences in protein composition. An improved understanding of freshwater mussel adhesion mechanics may help explain spreading dynamics and will be important in developing effective antifouling surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan D James
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College Street, Room 140, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E4, Canada
- Department of Marine Chemistry & Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 266 Woods Hole Road, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA
| | - Kenneth M Kimmins
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Room 407, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Minh-Tam Nguyen
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College Street, Room 140, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E4, Canada
| | - Alexander J Lausch
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Room 407, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Eli D Sone
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College Street, Room 140, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E4, Canada.
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Room 407, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada.
- Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, 124 Edward Street, Toronto, ON, M5G 1G6, Canada.
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Dreissenids’ breaking loose: differential attachment as a possible driver of the dominance shift between two invasive mussel species. Biol Invasions 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-021-02492-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPonto-Caspian dreissenids are notorious freshwater invaders. Recently, widespread observations show a dominance shift from the early invader, Dreissena polymorpha, to its successor, Dreissena bugensis. These observations likely reflect congeneric species differences in physiological and behavioural traits. Here, we assessed the mussel attachment strength, attachment rate, and the mode of byssal failure as trait differences that could potentially contribute to dominance shifts. The attachment traits were measured in field and laboratory experiments. Fouling plates were deployed in the Rhine-Meuse river delta and dreissenids were collected and acclimatised in 60 L non-aerated freshwater tanks. Attachment strength was positively correlated with shell size. The attachment strength of D. bugensis was significantly greater compared to slower growing D. polymorpha individuals of a dreissenid field assemblage. This corresponded to the superior byssal thread morphology of D. bugensis (i.e. higher number and two times wider byssal threads). Moreover, our results indicated that byssal threads of D. bugensis are stronger than those of D. polymorpha, as the latter ruptured more often. Additionally, D. bugensis had a significantly lower attachment rate than D. polymorpha. Having a greater attachment strength gives D. bugensis an advantage when it comes to withstanding currents and predators. On the other hand, not being attached allows an individual to actively move around. This would allow them to move away from fast changing unfavourable environmental conditions. These attachment traits indicate competitive benefits for D. bugensis over D. polymorpha, therefore possibly contributing to the dominance shifts.
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Jermacz Ł, Balogh C, Kobak J. Behavioural differences and interactions between two sessile bivalves forming mixed-species assemblages. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Louis F, Devin S, Giambérini L, Potet M, David E, Pain-Devin S. Energy allocation in two dreissenid species under metal stress. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 245:889-897. [PMID: 30508792 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Measurements of biological responses on living organisms are essential in aquatic biomonitoring. In freshwaters, Dreissena polymorpha is an invasive bivalve commonly used in ecotoxicological studies and considered as a model organism. However, D. polymorpha abundances are declining while another species colonizes most of the freshwaters: Dreissena rostriformis bugensis. This species has already been studied in ecophysiology but there is still a lack of data concerning its responses to stressors before its use as a bioindicator of environmental pollution. This study aims to compare the responses of the two species exposed to metal stress. Responses at different levels of biological organization were targeted with measurement of sub-cellular and individual biomarkers following an exposure of up to 7 days to cadmium at 10 μg.L-1. At the individual level, the scope for growth (SFG) was measured. It corresponds to the energy allocated to growth and reproduction. D. polymorpha exhibits variations in biomarker measurements as well as in the SFG in presence of Cd. D. r. bugensis shows no variation in its responses at the different targeted levels. According to the present results, energy metabolism seems to have an essential role for these species when facing a metal stress. Different energy allocation strategies were evidenced between the two species, although the link with biochemical biomarkers is more evident for D. polymorpha than for D. r. bugensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Louis
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR 02 SEBIO (Stress environnementaux et biosurveillance des milieux aquatiques), Reims, France; Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LIEC, F-57000, Metz, France.
| | - Simon Devin
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LIEC, F-57000, Metz, France
| | | | - Marine Potet
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LIEC, F-57000, Metz, France
| | - Elise David
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR 02 SEBIO (Stress environnementaux et biosurveillance des milieux aquatiques), Reims, France
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Bagdanavičiūtė I, Umgiesser G, Vaičiūtė D, Bresciani M, Kozlov I, Zaiko A. GIS-based multi-criteria site selection for zebra mussel cultivation: Addressing end-of-pipe remediation of a eutrophic coastal lagoon ecosystem. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 634:990-1003. [PMID: 29660893 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Farming of shellfish and seaweeds is a tested tool for mitigating eutrophication consequences in coastal environments, however as many other marine economic activities it should be a subject of marine spatial planning for designating suitable sites. The present study proposes site selection framework for provisional zebra mussel farming in a eutrophic lagoon ecosystem, aimed primarily at remediation purposes. GIS-based multi-criteria approach was applied, combining data from empirical maps, numerical models and remote sensing to estimate suitability parameters. Site selection and prioritisation of suitable areas considered 15 environmental and socio-economic criteria, which contributed to 4 optimisation models (settlement, growth and survival of mussels, environmental and socio-economic) and 3 predefined scenarios representing provisional goals of mussel cultivation: spat production, biomass production and bioremediation. The relative importance of each criterion was assessed utilizing the Analytical Hierarchy Process. Site suitability index was calculated and the final result of the site selection analysis was summarized for 3 scenarios and overall suitability map. Four suitability classes (unsuitable, least, moderately and most suitable) were applied, and 3 most suitable zones for provisional zebra mussel cultivation with 12 candidate sites were selected accordingly. The integrated approach presented in this study can be adjusted for designating zebra mussel farming sites in other estuarine lagoon ecosystems, or cultivation of other mussel species for bioremediation purposes. The analytical framework and the workflow designed in this study are also adoptable for addressing other aquaculture-related spatial planning issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrida Bagdanavičiūtė
- Department of Natural Sciences, Klaipeda University, H. Manto 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania; Institute of Geosciences, Vilnius University, M. K. Čiurlionio 21/27, LT-03101 Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Georg Umgiesser
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Scienze Marine (CNR-ISMAR), Arsenale Tesa 104, Castello 2737/f, 30122 Venice, Italy; Marine Research Institute, Klaipėda University, H. Manto 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania.
| | - Diana Vaičiūtė
- Marine Research Institute, Klaipėda University, H. Manto 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania.
| | - Mariano Bresciani
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per il Rilevamento Elettromagnetico dell''Ambiente (CNR-IREA), via Bassini 15, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Igor Kozlov
- Department of Natural Sciences, Klaipeda University, H. Manto 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania; Marine Research Institute, Klaipėda University, H. Manto 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania; Satellite Oceanography Laboratory, Russian State Hydrometeorological University, Malookhtinsky pr. 98, 195196 St. Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Anastasija Zaiko
- Marine Research Institute, Klaipėda University, H. Manto 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania; Coastal and Freshwater Group, Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
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Gerdol M, Fujii Y, Hasan I, Koike T, Shimojo S, Spazzali F, Yamamoto K, Ozeki Y, Pallavicini A, Fujita H. The purplish bifurcate mussel Mytilisepta virgata gene expression atlas reveals a remarkable tissue functional specialization. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:590. [PMID: 28789640 PMCID: PMC5549309 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4012-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mytilisepta virgata is a marine mussel commonly found along the coasts of Japan. Although this species has been the subject of occasional studies concerning its ecological role, growth and reproduction, it has been so far almost completely neglected from a genetic and molecular point of view. In the present study we present a high quality de novo assembled transcriptome of the Japanese purplish mussel, which represents the first publicly available collection of expressed sequences for this species. RESULTS The assembled transcriptome comprises almost 50,000 contigs, with a N50 statistics of ~1 kilobase and a high estimated completeness based on the rate of BUSCOs identified, standing as one of the most exhaustive sequence resources available for mytiloid bivalves to date. Overall this data, accompanied by gene expression profiles from gills, digestive gland, mantle rim, foot and posterior adductor muscle, presents an accurate snapshot of the great functional specialization of these five tissues in adult mussels. CONCLUSIONS We highlight that one of the most striking features of the M. virgata transcriptome is the high abundance and diversification of lectin-like transcripts, which pertain to different gene families and appear to be expressed in particular in the digestive gland and in the gills. Therefore, these two tissues might be selected as preferential targets for the isolation of molecules with interesting carbohydrate-binding properties. In addition, by molecular phylogenomics, we provide solid evidence in support of the classification of M. virgata within the Brachidontinae subfamily. This result is in agreement with the previously proposed hypothesis that the morphological features traditionally used to group Mytilisepta spp. and Septifer spp. within the same clade are inappropriate due to homoplasy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Gerdol
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 5, 34126 Trieste, Italy
| | - Yuki Fujii
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Nagasaki International University, 2825-7 Huis Ten Bosch, Sasebo, Nagasaki, 859-3298 Japan
| | - Imtiaj Hasan
- Department of Life and Environmental System Science, Graduate School of NanoBio Sciences, Yokohama City University, 22-2 Seto, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, 236-0027 Japan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205 Bangladesh
| | - Toru Koike
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Nagasaki International University, 2825-7 Huis Ten Bosch, Sasebo, Nagasaki, 859-3298 Japan
| | - Shunsuke Shimojo
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Nagasaki International University, 2825-7 Huis Ten Bosch, Sasebo, Nagasaki, 859-3298 Japan
| | - Francesca Spazzali
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 5, 34126 Trieste, Italy
| | - Kaname Yamamoto
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Nagasaki International University, 2825-7 Huis Ten Bosch, Sasebo, Nagasaki, 859-3298 Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Ozeki
- Department of Life and Environmental System Science, Graduate School of NanoBio Sciences, Yokohama City University, 22-2 Seto, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, 236-0027 Japan
| | - Alberto Pallavicini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 5, 34126 Trieste, Italy
| | - Hideaki Fujita
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Nagasaki International University, 2825-7 Huis Ten Bosch, Sasebo, Nagasaki, 859-3298 Japan
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Potet M, Devin S, Pain-Devin S, Rousselle P, Giambérini L. Integrated multi-biomarker responses in two dreissenid species following metal and thermal cross-stress. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 218:39-49. [PMID: 27552036 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
With current global changes, the combination of several stressors such as temperature and contaminants may impact species distribution and ecosystem functioning. In this study, we evaluated the combined impact of two metals (Ni and Cr) with a thermal stress (from 12 to 17 °C) on biomarker responses in two bivalves, Dreissena rostriformis bugensis and Dreissena polymorpha. Biomarkers are informative tools to evaluate exposure and effects of stressors on organisms. The set of 14 biomarkers measured here was representative of both physiologic (filtration activity) and cellular antioxidant and detoxification mechanisms. Our aim was to study the response pattern of both species, and its meaning in terms of invasive potential. The implications for the use of these mussels in environmental monitoring are also discussed. Results evidenced that the two species do not respond to multiple stressors in the same way. Indeed, the effects of contamination on biomarker responses were more marked for D. polymorpha, especially under nickel exposure. While we cannot conclude as to the effect of temperature, invasiveness could be influenced by species sensitivity to contaminants. The physiological and cellular differences between D. polymorpha and D. r. bugensis might also be of concern for environmental risk assessment. The two species present differential bioaccumulation patterns, filtration activity and cellular biomarker responses. If D. polymorpha populations decline, their substitution by D. r. bugensis for biomonitoring or laboratory studies will not be possible without a deeper understanding of biomarker responses of the new invasive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Potet
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS UMR 7360, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Environnements Continentaux (LIEC), Campus Bridoux, Rue du Général Delestraint, 57070 Metz, France.
| | - Simon Devin
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS UMR 7360, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Environnements Continentaux (LIEC), Campus Bridoux, Rue du Général Delestraint, 57070 Metz, France.
| | - Sandrine Pain-Devin
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS UMR 7360, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Environnements Continentaux (LIEC), Campus Bridoux, Rue du Général Delestraint, 57070 Metz, France.
| | - Philippe Rousselle
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS UMR 7360, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Environnements Continentaux (LIEC), Campus Bridoux, Rue du Général Delestraint, 57070 Metz, France.
| | - Laure Giambérini
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS UMR 7360, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Environnements Continentaux (LIEC), Campus Bridoux, Rue du Général Delestraint, 57070 Metz, France.
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Duchini D, Boltovskoy D, Sylvester F. Detachment, displacement and reattachment activity in a freshwater byssate mussel (Limnoperna fortunei): the effects of light, temperature and substratum orientation. BIOFOULING 2015; 31:599-611. [PMID: 26343201 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2015.1080251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The ability of the freshwater bivalve Limnoperna fortunei to voluntarily detach from the substratum, crawl and reattach as a function of illumination, temperature, substratum orientation, and mussel size was investigated. Thirty-two per cent of the 879 experimental animals detached and reattached elsewhere at least once during five- to eight-day experiments. The proportions of mobile mussels were significantly higher in permanent darkness than under permanent illumination. Displacement distances were also higher in darkness, but statistical differences with illuminated individuals were inconclusive. No evidence of circadian rhythms was detected. Mobile mussels were often significantly smaller than non-mobile individuals. It was not possible to detect the effect of water temperature (22°C and 31°C), or substratum orientation (topside and underside) on mussel mobility, but because the power of the statistical tests was low, future experiments are needed to confirm this result. The ability of mussels to voluntarily detach and reattach elsewhere has important implications for biofouling control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Duchini
- a IEGEBA (CONICET-UBA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales , Universidad de Buenos Aires , Buenos Aires , Argentina
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Matthews J, Van der Velde G, Bij de Vaate A, Collas FPL, Koopman KR, Leuven RSEW. Rapid range expansion of the invasive quagga mussel in relation to zebra mussel presence in The Netherlands and Western Europe. Biol Invasions 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-013-0498-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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