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Wang A, Pollack GH. Exclusion-zone water inside and outside of plant xylem vessels. Sci Rep 2024; 14:12071. [PMID: 38802675 PMCID: PMC11130298 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62983-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The fourth phase of water has garnered increased attention within the scientific community due to its distinct properties that differentiate it from regular water. This unique state seems to arise potentially from a liquid crystalline structure, which has been observed near various hydrophilic surfaces to possess the capability of excluding microspheres. Consequently, it has been labeled as exclusion zone (EZ) water. When in contact with hydrophilic surfaces, water could exhibit the ability to form organized layers of EZ water. In this study, we investigated the quick buildup of EZ water exposed to xylem vessels of four vegetable plants: cabbage, celery, asparagus, and pumpkin. Among them, pumpkin vessels showed larger EZs, up to 240 ± 56 μm in width. The width of EZ water found near the xylem vessels of the other plants ranged from 133 ± 22 to 142 ± 20 μm. EZ water generally excludes a wide range of particles, including polystyrene microspheres with various surface modifications, as well as silica microspheres. This implies that the formation of EZ water is not an artificial result of using specific microsphere types but rather demonstrates EZ's ability to exclude particles regardless of their composition. Inside single xylem vessels of the pumpkin, we could observe the dynamics of EZ buildup, growing from the inside edge of the vessel toward the center. The relationship between vessel diameter, vessel length, and salt concentration on EZ generation inside the xylem vessel was also explored. The results showed that EZ water can build up both inside and outside the xylem vessels. Our findings suggest that EZ generation inside xylem vessels is associated with water flow, likely driven by a proton gradient. Further research is warranted to elucidate the role of EZ water in the physiology of living plants, particularly considering the limitations of the current experiments conducted on cut-out xylem vessel samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
| | - Gerald H Pollack
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
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2
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Kowacz M, Withanage S, Niestępski S. Voltage and concentration gradients across membraneless interface generated next to hydrogels: relation to glycocalyx. SOFT MATTER 2023; 19:7528-7540. [PMID: 37750247 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm00889d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Next to many hydrophilic surfaces, including those of biological cells and tissues, a layer of water that effectively excludes solutes and particles can be generated. This interfacial water is the subject of research aiming for practical applications such as removal of salts, pathogens or manipulation of biomolecules. However, the exact mechanism of its creation is still elusive because its persistence and extension contradict hydrogen-bond dynamics and electric double layer predictions. The experimentally recorded negative voltage of this interfacial water remains to be properly explained. Even less is known about the nature of such water layers in biological systems. We present experimental evidence for ion and particle exclusion as a result of separation of ionic charges with distinct diffusion rates across a liquid junction at the gel/water interface and the subsequent repulsion of ions of a given sign by a like-charged gel surface. Gels represent features of biological interfaces (in terms of functional groups and porosity) and are subject to biologically relevant chemical triggers. Our results show that gels with -OSO3- and -COO- groups can effectively generate ion- and particle-depleted regions of water reaching over 100 μm and having negative voltage up to -30 mV. Exclusion distance and electric potential depend on the liquid junction potential at the gel/water interface and on the concentration gradient at the depleted region/bulk interface, respectively. The voltage and extension of these ion- and particle-depleted water layers can be effectively modified by CO2 (respiratory gas) or KH2PO4 (cell metabolite). Possible implications pertain to biologically unstirred water layers and a cell's bioenergetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Kowacz
- Department of Reproductive Immunology & Pathology, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Sinith Withanage
- Department of Reproductive Immunology & Pathology, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Sebastian Niestępski
- Department of Reproductive Immunology & Pathology, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland.
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3
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Nooryani M, Benneker AM, Natale G. Self-generated exclusion zone in a dead-end pore microfluidic channel. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:2122-2130. [PMID: 36951143 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc01130a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Particles can be manipulated by gradients of concentration (diffusiophoresis) and electric potential (electrophoresis) to transport them to desired locations. To establish these gradients, external stimuli are usually required. In this work, we manipulate particles through a self-generated concentration gradient within a PDMS-based microfluidic platform, without directly applying an external field. The interfacial chemistry of the PDMS results in a local increase of hydronium ions, leading to a concentration and electrical potential gradient in the system, which in turn generate a temporary exclusion zone at the pore entrance, extending up to half of the main channel, or 150 μm. With time, this exclusion zone diminishes as equilibrium in the ion concentration is reached. We study the dynamics of the exclusion zone thickness and find that the Sherwood number determines the size and stability of the exclusion zone. Our work shows, that even without introducing external ionic gradients, particle diffusiophoresis is significant in lab-on-a-chip systems. The interfacial chemistry of the microfluidic platform can have a significant influence on particle movement and this should be considered when designing experiments on diffusiophoresis. The observed phenomenon can be employed to design lab-on-a-chip-based sorting of colloidal particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matina Nooryani
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, AB, Canada.
| | - Anne M Benneker
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, AB, Canada.
| | - Giovanniantonio Natale
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, AB, Canada.
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Bargel H, Trossmann VT, Sommer C, Scheibel T. Bioselectivity of silk protein-based materials and their bio-inspired applications. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 13:902-921. [PMID: 36127898 PMCID: PMC9475208 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.13.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Adhesion to material surfaces is crucial for almost all organisms regarding subsequent biological responses. Mammalian cell attachment to a surrounding biological matrix is essential for maintaining their survival and function concerning tissue formation. Conversely, the adhesion and presence of microbes interferes with important multicellular processes of tissue development. Therefore, tailoring bioselective, biologically active, and multifunctional materials for biomedical applications is a modern focus of biomaterial research. Engineering biomaterials that stimulate and interact with cell receptors to support binding and subsequent physiological responses of multicellular systems attracted much interest in the last years. Further to this, the increasing threat of multidrug resistance of pathogens against antibiotics to human health urgently requires new material concepts for preventing microbial infestation and biofilm formation. Thus, materials exhibiting microbial repellence or antimicrobial behaviour to reduce inflammation, while selectively enhancing regeneration in host tissues are of utmost interest. In this context, protein-based materials are interesting candidates due to their natural origin, biological activity, and structural properties. Silk materials, in particular those made of spider silk proteins and their recombinant counterparts, are characterized by extraordinary properties including excellent biocompatibility, slow biodegradation, low immunogenicity, and non-toxicity, making them ideally suited for tissue engineering and biomedical applications. Furthermore, recombinant production technologies allow for application-specific modification to develop adjustable, bioactive materials. The present review focusses on biological processes and surface interactions involved in the bioselective adhesion of mammalian cells and repellence of microbes on protein-based material surfaces. In addition, it highlights the importance of materials made of recombinant spider silk proteins, focussing on the progress regarding bioselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Bargel
- Department of Biomaterials, University of Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Vanessa T Trossmann
- Department of Biomaterials, University of Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christoph Sommer
- Department of Biomaterials, University of Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Thomas Scheibel
- Department of Biomaterials, University of Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Str. 1, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bayreuth Center of Material Science and Engineering (BayMat), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bavarian Polymer Institute (BPI), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bayreuth Center of Colloids and Interfaces (BZKG), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bayreuth Center for Molecular Biosciences (BZMB), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
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5
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Hu Y, Zhang Y, Cheng Y. Kinetic insight on the long-range exclusion of dissolved substances by interfacial interactions of water and hydrophilic surface. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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6
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Bunkin NF, Bolotskova PN, Bondarchuk EV, Gryaznov VG, Kozlov VA, Okuneva MA, Ovchinnikov OV, Smoliy OP, Turkanov IF, Galkina CA, Dmitriev AS, Seliverstov AF. Stochastic Ultralow-Frequency Oscillations of the Luminescence Intensity from the Surface of a Polymer Membrane Swelling in Aqueous Salt Solutions. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14040688. [PMID: 35215601 PMCID: PMC8874797 DOI: 10.3390/polym14040688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Photoluminescence from the surface of a Nafion polymer membrane upon swelling in isotonic aqueous solutions and Milli-Q water has been studied. Liquid samples were preliminarily processed by electric pulses with a duration of 1 μs and an amplitude of 0.1 V using an antenna in the form of a flat capacitor; experiments on photoluminescent spectroscopy were carried out 20 min after this treatment. A typical dependence of the luminescence intensity, I, on the swelling time, t, obeys an exponentially decaying function. The characteristic decay time of these functions and the stationary level of luminescence intensity depend on the repetition rate of electrical pulses, and the obtained dependences are well reproduced. It transpired that, at certain pulse repetition rates, the dependence, I(t), is a random function, and there is no reproducibility. Stochastic effects are associated with a random external force of an electromagnetic nature that acts on a polymer membrane during swelling. The source of this random force, in our opinion, is low-frequency pulsations of neutron stars or white dwarfs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai F. Bunkin
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, 105005 Moscow, Russia; (P.N.B.); (V.A.K.); (M.A.O.)
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova Str. 38, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
| | - Polina N. Bolotskova
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, 105005 Moscow, Russia; (P.N.B.); (V.A.K.); (M.A.O.)
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova Str. 38, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena V. Bondarchuk
- “Concern GRANIT”, Gogolevsky Blvd., 31, 2, 119019 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.B.); (V.G.G.); (O.V.O.); (O.P.S.); (I.F.T.); (C.A.G.)
| | - Valery G. Gryaznov
- “Concern GRANIT”, Gogolevsky Blvd., 31, 2, 119019 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.B.); (V.G.G.); (O.V.O.); (O.P.S.); (I.F.T.); (C.A.G.)
| | - Valeriy A. Kozlov
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, 105005 Moscow, Russia; (P.N.B.); (V.A.K.); (M.A.O.)
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova Str. 38, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Maria A. Okuneva
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, 105005 Moscow, Russia; (P.N.B.); (V.A.K.); (M.A.O.)
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova Str. 38, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg V. Ovchinnikov
- “Concern GRANIT”, Gogolevsky Blvd., 31, 2, 119019 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.B.); (V.G.G.); (O.V.O.); (O.P.S.); (I.F.T.); (C.A.G.)
| | - Oleg P. Smoliy
- “Concern GRANIT”, Gogolevsky Blvd., 31, 2, 119019 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.B.); (V.G.G.); (O.V.O.); (O.P.S.); (I.F.T.); (C.A.G.)
| | - Igor F. Turkanov
- “Concern GRANIT”, Gogolevsky Blvd., 31, 2, 119019 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.B.); (V.G.G.); (O.V.O.); (O.P.S.); (I.F.T.); (C.A.G.)
| | - Catherine A. Galkina
- “Concern GRANIT”, Gogolevsky Blvd., 31, 2, 119019 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.B.); (V.G.G.); (O.V.O.); (O.P.S.); (I.F.T.); (C.A.G.)
| | - Alexandr S. Dmitriev
- Kotelnikov Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Mokhovaya 11, 7, 125009 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Alexandr F. Seliverstov
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Prospect 31, 4, 119071 Moscow, Russia;
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7
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Sonnleitner D, Sommer C, Scheibel T, Lang G. Approaches to inhibit biofilm formation applying natural and artificial silk-based materials. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 131:112458. [PMID: 34857315 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of penicillin started a new era of health care since it allowed the effective treatment of formerly deadly infections. As a drawback, its overuse led to a growing number of multi-drug resistant pathogens. Challenging this arising threat, material research focuses on the development of microbe-killing or microbe repellent agents implementing such functions directly into materials. Due to their biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity and mechanical strength, silk-based materials are attractive candidates for applications in the biomedical field. Furthermore, it has been observed that silks display high persistency in their natural environment giving reason to suspect that they might be attractive candidates to prevent microbial infestation. The current review describes the process of biofilm formation on medical devices and the most common strategies to prevent it, divided into effects of surface topography, material modification and integrated additives. In this context, recent state of the art developments in the field of natural and artificial silk-based materials with microbe-repellant or antimicrobial properties are addressed. These silk properties are controversially discussed and conclusions are drawn as to which parameters will be decisive for the successful design of new bio-functional materials based on the blueprint of silk proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sonnleitner
- Biopolymer Processing, Faculty of Engineering Science, University of Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christoph Sommer
- Chair of Biomaterials, Faculty of Engineering Science, University of Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Thomas Scheibel
- Chair of Biomaterials, Faculty of Engineering Science, University of Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Gregor Lang
- Biopolymer Processing, Faculty of Engineering Science, University of Bayreuth, Germany.
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8
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Ode Boni BO, Bakadia BM, Osi AR, Shi Z, Chen H, Gauthier M, Yang G. Immune Response to Silk Sericin-Fibroin Composites: Potential Immunogenic Elements and Alternatives for Immunomodulation. Macromol Biosci 2021; 22:e2100292. [PMID: 34669251 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202100292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The unique properties of silk proteins (SPs), particularly silk sericin (SS) and silk fibroin (SF), have attracted attention in the design of scaffolds for tissue engineering over the past decades. Since SF has good mechanical properties, while SS displays bioactivity, scaffolds combining both proteins should exhibit complementary properties enhancing the potential of these materials. Unfortunately, SS-SF composites can generate chronic immune responses and their immunogenic element is not completely clear. The potential of SS-SF composites in tissue engineering, elements which may contribute to their immunogenicity, and alternatives for their preparation and design, to modulate the immune response and take advantage of their useful properties, are discussed in this review. It is known that SS can enhance β-sheet formation in SF, which may act as hydrophobic regions with a strong affinity for adsorption proteins inducing the chronic recruitment of inflammatory cells. Therefore, tailoring the exposure of hydrophobic regions at the scaffold surface should represent a viable strategy to modulate the immune response. This can be achieved by coating SS-SF composites with SS or other hydrophilic polymers, to take advantage of their antibiofouling properties. Research is still needed to realize the full potential of these composites for tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biaou Oscar Ode Boni
- National Engineering Research Center for Nano-Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Bianza Moïse Bakadia
- National Engineering Research Center for Nano-Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Amarachi Rosemary Osi
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315201, China
| | - Zhijun Shi
- National Engineering Research Center for Nano-Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Hong Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Mario Gauthier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Guang Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Nano-Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
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9
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Kowacz M, Pollack GH. Propolis-induced exclusion of colloids: Possible new mechanism of biological action. COLLOID AND INTERFACE SCIENCE COMMUNICATIONS 2020; 38:100307. [PMID: 32864353 PMCID: PMC7442903 DOI: 10.1016/j.colcom.2020.100307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Propolis is a natural product originating from life activity of honeybees. It exhibits wide range of biological properties applicable in medicine, the food industry, and cosmetics. Chemically, propolis is a complex and variable mixture with more than 300 identified biologically active components. Propolis's many health-promoting effects are attributed to different biochemical mechanisms, mediated by often-concerted actions of some of its many constituents. Propolis is considered safe and biocompatible. Yet due to its intrinsic complexity, standardization of propolis preparations for medical use as well as prediction of e.g. pathogen-specific interactions becomes a non-trivial task. In this work we demonstrate a new physical mechanism of propolis action, largely independent of specific nuances of propolis chemistry, which may underlie some of its biological actions. We show that propolis-bearing surfaces generate an extensive exclusion zone (EZ) water layer. EZ is an interfacial region of water capable of excluding solutes ranging from ions to microorganisms. Propolis-generated EZ may constitute an effective barrier, physically disabling the approach of various pathogens to the propolis-functionalized surfaces. We suggest possible implications of this new mechanism for propolis-based prevention of respiratory infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Kowacz
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Gerald H Pollack
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
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10
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Elton DC, Spencer PD, Riches JD, Williams ED. Exclusion Zone Phenomena in Water-A Critical Review of Experimental Findings and Theories. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E5041. [PMID: 32708867 PMCID: PMC7404113 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21145041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The existence of the exclusion zone (EZ), a layer of water in which plastic microspheres are repelled from hydrophilic surfaces, has now been independently demonstrated by several groups. A better understanding of the mechanisms which generate EZs would help with understanding the possible importance of EZs in biology and in engineering applications such as filtration and microfluidics. Here we review the experimental evidence for EZ phenomena in water and the major theories that have been proposed. We review experimental results from birefringence, neutron radiography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and other studies. Pollack theorizes that water in the EZ exists has a different structure than bulk water, and that this accounts for the EZ. We present several alternative explanations for EZs and argue that Schurr's theory based on diffusiophoresis presents a compelling alternative explanation for the core EZ phenomenon. Among other things, Schurr's theory makes predictions about the growth of the EZ with time which have been confirmed by Florea et al. and others. We also touch on several possible confounding factors that make experimentation on EZs difficult, such as charged surface groups, dissolved solutes, and adsorbed nanobubbles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Elton
- Radiology and Imaging Sciences, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Peter D Spencer
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4059, Australia
| | - James D Riches
- School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Science and Engineering Faculty, Institute for Future Environments, QUT, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Elizabeth D Williams
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, QUT, Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD 4059, Australia
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