Anti-hypersensitive and anti-inflammatory activities of water extract ofZingiber zerumbet(L.) Smith

Immunomodulatory effects and mechanisms of the extracts and secondary compounds of Zingiber and Alpinia species: a review

Zingiber and Alpinia species (family: Zingiberaceae) are popularly used in food as spices and flavoring agents and in ethnomedicine to heal numerous diseases, including immune-related disorders. However, their ethnomedicinal uses have not been sufficiently supported by scientific investigations. Numerous studies on the modulating effects of plants and their bioactive compounds on the different steps of the immune system have been documented. This review aimed to highlight up-to-date research findings and critically analyze the modulatory effects and mechanisms of the extracts and secondary compounds of several Zingiber and Alpinia species, namely, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Z. cassumunar Roxb., Z. zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm., Alpinia galanga Linn., A. conchigera Griff, A. katsumadai Hayata, A. oxyphylla Miq., A. officinarum Hance, A. zerumbet (Pers.) Burtt. et Smith, and A. purpurata (Viell.) K. Schum. on the immune system, particularly via the inflammation-related signaling pathways. The immunomodulating activities of the crude extracts of the plants have been reported, but the constituents contributing to the activities have mostly not been identified. Among the extracts, Z. officinale extracts were the most investigated for their in vitro, in vivo, and clinical effects on the immune system. Among the bioactive metabolites, 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerols, 6-shogaol, and zerumbone from Zingiber species and cardamomin, 1'-acetoxychavicol acetate, yakuchinone, rutin, 1,8-cineole, and lectin from Alpinia species have demonstrated strong immunomodulating effects. More experimental studies using cell and animal models of immune-related disorders are necessary to further understand the underlying mechanisms, together with elaborate preclinical pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, bioavailability, and toxicity studies. Many of these extracts and secondary metabolites are potential candidates for clinical development in immunomodulating agents or functional foods to prevent and treat chronic inflammatory disorders.

Standardized extract of Zingiber zerumbet suppresses LPS-induced pro-inflammatory responses through NF-κB, MAPK and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways in U937 macrophages

BACKGROUND

Zingiber zerumbet rhizome has been used as spices and in traditional medicine to heal various immune-inflammatory related ailments. Although the plant was reported to have potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties by several studies, the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects have not been well justified.

PURPOSE

The study was carried out to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory properties of the standardized 80% ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet through its effect on mitogen-activated protein kinase (MyD88)-dependent nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-кB), mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt (PI3K-Akt) signaling pathways in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced U937 human macrophages.

METHODS

Standardization of the 80% ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet was performed by using a validated reversed-phase HPLC method, while LC-MS/MS was used to profile the secondary metabolites. The release of pro-inflammatory markers, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) was evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), while the Western blot technique was executed to elucidate the expression of mediators linked to MyD88-dependent respective signaling pathways. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay was carried out to quantify the relative gene expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and pro-inflammatory mediators at the transcriptional level.

RESULTS

The quantitative and qualitative analyses of Z. zerumbet extract showed the presence of several compounds including the major chemical marker zerumbone. Z. zerumbet extract suppressed the release of pro-inflammatory mediators, COX-2 protein expression and downregulated the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory markers. Z. zerumbet-treatment also blocked NF-κB activation by preventing the phosphorylation of IKKα/β and NF-κB (p65) as well as the phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα. Z. zerumbet extract concentration-dependently inhibited the phosphorylation of respective MAPKs (JNK, ERK, and p38) as well as Akt. Correspondingly, Z. zerumbet extract suppressed the upstream signaling adaptor molecules, TLR4 and MyD88 prerequisite for the NF-κB, MAPKs, and PI3K-Akt activation.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that Z. zerumbet has impressive role in suppressing inflammation and related immune disorders by inhibition of various pro-inflammatory markers through the imperative MyD88-dependent NF-κB, MAPKs, and PI3K-Akt activation.

Contact and Repellant Activities of Zerumbone and Its Analogues from the Essential Oil of Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith against Lasioderma serricorne

The contact toxicity and repellent activities of the essential oil extracted from the rhizomes of Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith (Zingiberaceae) was evaluated against cigarette beetles (Lasioderma serricorne). The essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation was investigated by GC-FID and GC-MS. The main constituents of the essential oil were zerumbone (40.2%), α-caryophyllene (8.6%), humulene epoxide II (7.3%), camphene (5.9%) and fenchene (4.7%). Zerumbone and its analogues totally are accounting for 60.3% of the essential oil. It was found that the essential oil possessed contact toxicity against L. serricorne adults with a LD₅₀ value of 48.3 µg/adult. α-Caryophyllene (LD₅₀ = 13.1 µg/adult) exhibited stronger contact toxicity against L. serricorne than humulene oxide (LD₅₀ = 31.2 µg/adult), β-caryophyllene (LD₅₀ = 35.5 µg/adult) and zerumbone (LD₅₀ = 42.4 µg/adult). Moreover, α-caryophyllene possessed strong repellent activity (Class IV and V, respectively) against the beetles at 78.63 nL/cm², after 2 and 4 h treatment. The results indicate that zerumbone and its analogues might be developed into natural insecticides or repellents for control of cigarette beetles, but their bioactivities are affected by their structures.

Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of zerumbone from Zingiber zerumbet L. rhizome and evaluation of antiproliferative activity of optimized extracts

Background

The extraction of bioactive compounds from herbal materials requires optimization in order to recover the highest active dose. Response surface methodology was used to optimize variables affecting the microwave extraction of zerumbone from Zingiber zerumbet using the Box–Behnken design. The influence of variables, such as ethanol concentration (X₁), microwave power (X₂), irradiation time (X₃), and liquid-to-solid ratio (X₄), on the extraction of zerumbone was modeled using a second-order regression equation. The antiproliferative activity of optimized and non-optimized extracts was evaluated against the HeLa cancer cell line using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay.

Results

Two linear parameters, X₁ and X₄, and their quadratic parameters were highly significant at the P < 0.01 level. Two interaction parameters, X₁X₄ and X₂X₃ were significant, whereas interactions of X₁X₂, X₁X₃, X₂X₄ and X₃X₄ were insignificant (P > 0.05). The optimum microwave extraction conditions were as follows: ethanol concentration, 44%; microwave power, 518 W; irradiation time, 38.5 s; and liquid-to-solid ratio, 38 mL/g. Under these conditions, the maximum zerumbone yield was 5.88 mg/g DM, which was similar to the predicted value (5.946 mg/g DM). Optimized and non-optimized Z. zerumbet rhizome extracts exhibited significant antiproliferative activity against HeLa cancer cells, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of 4.3 and 7.8 μg/mL, respectively, compared with 1.68 μg/mL for the anticancer drug cisplatin. When the extract concentration increased from 4.3 to 16.0 μg/mL, the inhibition of cancer cell growth increased from 50.0 to 79.5%.

Conclusions

In this study, the optimized microwave protocol developed for extracting zerumbone from Z. zerumbet was faster and consumed less solvent than previous methods, while improving and enhancing the antiproliferative activity.

Variation in secondary metabolite production as well as antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Zingiber zerumbet (L.) at different stages of growth

Background

Zingiber zerumbet (L.) is a traditional Malaysian folk remedy that contains several interesting bioactive compounds of pharmaceutical quality.

Methods

Total flavonoids and total phenolics content from the leaf, stem, and rhizome of Z. zerumbet at 3 different growth stages (3, 6, and 9 months) were determined using spectrophotometric methods and individual flavonoid and phenolic compounds were identified using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography method. Chalcone Synthase (CHS) activity was measured using a CHS assay. Antioxidant activities were evaluated by ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays. The antibacterial activity was determined against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria using the disc diffusion method.

Results

Highest content of total flavonoid [29.7 mg quercetin equivalents (QE)/g dry material (DM)] and total phenolic (44.8 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g DM) were detected in the rhizome extracts of 9-month-old plants. As the plant matured from 3 to 9 months, the total flavonoid content (TFC) and total phenolic content (TPC) decreased in the leaf, but increased significantly in the rhizomes. Among the secondary metabolites identified, the most abundant, based on the concentrations, were as follows: flavonoids, catechin > quercetin > rutin > luteolin > myricetin > kaempferol; phenolic acids, gallic acid > ferulic acid > caffeic acid > cinnamic acid. Rhizome extracts from 9-month-old plants demonstrated the highest CHS activity (7.48 nkat/mg protein), followed by the 6-month-old rhizomes (5.79 nkat/mg protein) and 3-month-old leaf (4.76 nkat/mg protein). Nine-month-old rhizomes exhibited the highest DPPH activity (76.42 %), followed by the 6-month-old rhizomes (59.41 %) and 3-month-old leaves (57.82 %), with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 55.8, 86.4, and 98.5 μg/mL, respectively, compared to that of α- tocopherol (84.19 %; 44.8 μg/mL) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (70.25 %; 58.6 μg/mL). The highest FRAP activity was observed in 9-month-old rhizomes, with IC₅₀ of 62.4 μg/mL. Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of Z. zerumbet extracts against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria ranged from 30 to >100 µg/mL. Among the bacterial strains examined, Staphylococcus aureus was sensitive to the leaf extract of Z. zerumbet, with MIC of 30.0 μg/mL and other strains were sensitive to the rhizome extracts.

Conclusions

Three- and 9-month-old plants are recommended when harvesting the leaf and rhizome of Z. zerumbet, respectively, in order to obtain effective pharmaceutical quality of the desired compounds.

Cytotoxicity of the rhizome of medicinal plants

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the cytotoxicity of the crude ethanol extract of the rhizome of Zingiber zerumbet (Z. zerumbet) (L) Smith. and Curcuma zedoaria (C. zedoaria) Rosc. against Artemia salina Leach.

METHODS

Fresh rhizomes of Z. zerumbet (L) Smith. and C. zedoaria Rosc. were extracted separately in cold with ethanol (2.5 L) and after concentration a brownish syrupy suspension of ethanol extracts of Z. zerumbet (L) Smith. and C. zedoaria Rosc. was obtained. The cytotoxic effect of the crude ethanol extracts of both plants was determined by brine shrimp lethality bioassay.

RESULTS

Crude ethanol extracts of the rhizome of Z. zerumbet (L) Smith. showed the highest cytotoxicity (LC50 was 1.24 µg/mL) against brine shrimp nauplii as compared with C. zedoaria Rosc. (LC50 was 33.593 µg/mL) after 24 h of exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that the rhizome of Z. zerumbet (L) Smith. and C. zedoaria Rosc. can be used as a source of cytotoxic agent.

Antimicrobial activities of the rhizome extract of Zingiber zerumbet Linn

OBJECTIVE

To investigate antimicrobial effects of ethanolic extract of Zingiber zerumbet (Z. zerumbet) (L.) Smith and its chloroform and petroleum ether soluble fractions against pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

METHODS

The fresh rhizomes of Zingiber zerumbet were extracted in cold with ethanol (4.0 L) after concentration. The crude ethanol extract was fractionated by petroleum ether and chloroform to form a suspension of ethanol extract (15.0 g), petroleum ether fraction (6.6 g) and chloroform soluble fraction (5.0 g). The crude ethanol extract and its petroleum ether and chloroform fractions were evaluated for antibacterial and antifungal activity against thirteen pathogenic bacteria and three fungi by the disc diffusion method. Commercially available kanamycin (30 µg/disc) was used as standard disc and blank discs impregnated with the respective solvents were used as negative control.

RESULTS

At a concentration of 400 µg/disc, all the samples showed mild to moderate antibacterial and antifungal activity and produced the zone of inhibition ranging from 6 mm to 10 mm. Among the tested samples, the crude ethanol extract showed the highest activity against Vibrio parahemolyticus (V. parahemolyticus). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the crude ethanol extract and its fractions were within the value of 128-256 µg/mL against two Gram positive and four Gram negative bacteria and all the samples showed the lowest MIC value against V. parahemolyticus (128 µg/mL).

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that, potent antibacterial and antifungal phytochemicals are present in ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet (L).

Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith: A Review of Its Ethnomedicinal, Chemical, and Pharmacological Uses

Zingiber zerumbet Sm., locally known to the Malay as “Lempoyang,” is a perennial herb found in many tropical countries, including Malaysia. The rhizomes of Z. zerumbet, particularly, have been regularly used as food flavouring and appetizer in various Malays' cuisines while the rhizomes extracts have been used in Malay traditional medicine to treat various types of ailments (e.g., inflammatory- and pain-mediated diseases, worm infestation and diarrhea). Research carried out using different in vitro and in vivo assays of biological evaluation support most of these claims. The active pharmacological component of Z. zerumbet rhizomes most widely studied is zerumbone. This paper presents the botany, traditional uses, chemistry, and pharmacology of this medicinal plant.

Preliminary analysis of the antinociceptive activity of zerumbone

We have investigated the antinociceptive activity of zerumbone (1), a natural cyclic sesquiterpene isolated from Zingiber zerumbet Smith, in acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing test and hot plate test in mice. 1 given by intraperitoneal route produced significant dose-dependent antinociceptive effect in all the test models used. In addition, the antinociceptive effect of 1 in the hot plate test was reversed by the non-selective opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, suggesting that the opioid system is involved in its analgesic mechanism of action.