State of the ART: clinical efficacy and improved quality of life in the public antiretroviral therapy program, Free State province, South Africa

Prednisone for the prevention of tuberculosis-associated IRIS (randomized controlled trial): Impact on the health-related quality of life

Background

Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (TB-IRIS) is an important complication in patients with HIV-associated tuberculosis (TB) starting antiretroviral treatment (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa. The PredART-trial recently showed that prophylactic prednisone reduces the incidence of paradoxical TB-IRIS by 30% in a population at high risk. This paper reports the impact of the intervention on health-related quality of life (HRQoL), a secondary endpoint of the trial, measured by an amended version of the PROQOL-HIV instrument—the instrument’s validity and reliability is also assessed.

Methods

A total of 240 adult participants (antiretroviral treatment (ART)-naïve, TB-HIV co-infected with CD4 count ≤100 cells/μL) were recruited and randomized (1:1) to (1) a prednisone arm or (2) a placebo arm. In this sub-study of the PredART-trial we evaluated (1) the performance of an HIV-specific HR-QoL instrument amended for TB-IRIS, i.e., the PROQOL-HIV/TB in patients with HIV-associated TB starting ART (reliability, internal and external construct validity and invariance across time) and (2) the impact of prednisone on self-reported HR-QoL in this population through mixed models.

Results

The PROQOL-HIV/TB scale displayed acceptable internal reliability and good internal and external validity. This instrument, including the factor structure with the eight sub-dimensions, can thus be applied for measuring HR-QoL among HIV-TB patients at high risk for TB-IRIS. Prophylactic prednisone was statistically significantly associated only with the ‘Physical Health and Symptoms’-subscale: a four-week course of prednisone resulted in an earlier improvement in the physical dimension of HR-QoL compared to placebo.

Conclusion

We demonstrated that the PROQOL-HIV/TB scale adequately measures different aspects of self-reported HR-QoL in HIV-TB patients. Although more research is needed to understand how other domains related to HR-QoL can be improved, targeting patients at high risk for developing TB-IRIS with a four-week course of prednisone has a beneficial effect on the physical aspects of patient-reported quality of life.

Unpacking the dynamics of double stigma: how the HIV-TB co-epidemic alters TB stigma and its management among healthcare workers

BACKGROUND

HIV and tuberculosis (TB) are intricably interlinked in South Africa. The social aspects of this co-epidemic remain relatively unexplored. More specifically, no research has quantitatively explored the double stigma associated with HIV and TB in this context, and more specifically the impact of the co-epidemic on [1] the stigmatisation of TB and [2] the TB stigma mangement strategy of covering (i.e. the use of TB as a cover for having HIV). The current study aims to address this research gap by disentangling the complex mechanisms related to HIV-TB stigma.

METHODS

Using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), data of 882 health care workers (HCWs) in the Free State province, South Africa, are analysed to investigate the link between the stigmatization of HIV and TB and the stigma management by those affected. The current study focuses on health care workers (HCWs), as both TB and HIV have a severe impact on this professional group.

RESULTS

The results demonstrate that the perceived link between the epidemics is significantly associated with double HIV-TB stigmatization. Furthermore, the link between the illnesses and the double stigma are driving the stigmatization of TB. Finally, the link between HIV and TB as well as the stigmatization of both diseases by colleagues are associated with an increased use of covering as a stigma management strategy.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first quantitative study disentagling the mediating role of double stigma in the context of the co-epidemic as well as the impact of the co-epidemic on the social connotations of TB. The results stress the need for an integrated approach in the fight against HIV and TB recognizing the intertwined nature of the co-epidemic, not only in medical-clinical terms, but also in its social consequences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

South African National Clinical Trials Register, registration ID: DOH-27-1115-5204. Prospectively registered on 26 August 2015.

Comparison of Zidovudine and Tenofovir Based Regimens With Regard to Health-Related Quality of Life and Prevalence of Symptoms in HIV Patients in a Kenyan Referral Hospital

Aim: Zidovudine and tenofovir form the backbone of antiretroviral therapy in Kenya. However, their side-effects may affect the quality of life (QoL) of patients. The aim was to compare the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of adult patients on tenofovir versus zidovudine based regimens in a referral hospital in Kenya to provide future guidance.

Methods: A comparative cross sectional study among 501 adult out-patients on either tenofovir or zidovudine was undertaken in Kenyatta National Hospital between 2015 and 2016. The Medical Outcome Study HIV Health Survey (MOS-HIV) was administered along with other key aspects of treatment. Linear regression analysis was performed to identify determinants of HRQoL.

Results: Patients on zidovudine had a higher Physical Health Summary Score (PHSS) and Mental Health Summary Score (MHSS) compared to those on tenofovir. The presence of any symptom of the disease and a stated inability to cope were negatively associated with PHSS, whilst having a regular source of income improved PHSS. Being on tenofovir, symptom of illness [β = -1.24; 95% CI (-2.253, -0.226)], absence of pain [β=0.413; 95% CI (0.152, 0.674)] and patient stated inability to cope with HIV [β = -1.029; 95% CI (-1.441, -0.617)] affected the MHSS. Patients on tenofovir and second line regimens had more signs and symptoms of illness.

Conclusion: Participants on zidovudine based regimens showed a better performance across all aspects of HRQoL. These are considerations for the future.

Patients' recommendations for a patient-centred public antiretroviral therapy programme in eThekwini, KwaZulu-Natal

Background

The South African antiretroviral therapy (ART) programme, which is in its second decade of existence, includes many successes and challenges. This study provides patients’ recommendations to address the challenges they currently experience at four antiretroviral (ARV) clinics based in urban public hospitals in order to provide a patient-centred service.

Objectives

To use patients’ recommendations to develop intervention strategies to improve patients’ experiences of the public ART programme.

Method

A three-stage, sequential, mixed-method study was implemented. Stage 1 recruited five patients from the four sites to formulate and test a structured questionnaire prior to data collection. Stage 2 recruited a stratified random sample of 400 patients (100 from each hospital) to complete the administered structured questionnaire. Stage 3 purposively selected 12 patients (three from each of the four sites) to participate in in-depth audio-recorded interviews using an interview schedule.

Results

The 412 patients prioritised six recommendations, which are as follows: waiting areas should be enclosed to protect patients from the elements (rain, sun, lightening, wind and cold); patients should not have to return their files to the main hospital or ARV clinic themselves; stable patients should collect their ARV drugs every three months; pharmacy opening and closing times should be revised to suit patients’ needs; HIV-positive patient representatives should be elected at each ARV clinic to address patients’ concerns and/or challenges to ensure that the programme could be more patient-centred and ARV clinic operating times should be extended to open later during weekdays and over weekends.

Conclusion

Patients living with HIV have a valuable contribution to make in assessing service delivery and making recommendations to create a patient-centred healthcare environment, which will feasibly increase their adherence to ART.

Simplification of HAART therapy on ambulatory HIV patients in Malaysia:a randomized controlled trial

Objective:

Evaluate the impact of fixed-dose combination (FDC) containing emtricitabine (FTC), tenofovir (TDF), and efavirenz (EFV) versus a free-dose combination (FRC) of the same three drugs on clinical outcomes, adherence and quality of life in Malaysian outpatients with HIV.

Methods:

HIV patients (n=120) on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the infectious disease clinic of Hospital Sungai Buloh were randomized to either FDC (n=60) or FRC (n=60). Morisky scores, health-related quality of life scores and clinical outcomes such as CD4 count and viral load were assessed in both groups at baseline and six months.

Result:

Patients on FDC (108 SD=1.1) had a significantly higher CD4 count increase compared to the FRC group (746.1 SD=36.3 vs 799.8 SD=33.8) (p <0.001). The viral load profile was unchanged and remained undetectable in both groups. The quality of life EQ-5D scores showed a positive correlation with CD4 counts in the FDC group (ρ=0.301, p=0.019) at six months. On the other hand, quality of life EQ-VAS scores was significantly associated with medication adherence in the FDC group at six months (ρ=0.749, p=0.05). However, no significant changes or associations were observed in the FRC group.

Conclusion:

Management of HAART using an FDC demonstrated a positive clinical outcome, adherence and quality of life within six months in local HIV patients.

Who Should We Target? The Impact of Individual and Family Characteristics on the Expressed Need for Community-Based Treatment Support in HIV Patients in South Africa

Reviews of impact evaluations of community-based health workers and peer support groups highlight the considerable variability in the effectiveness of such support in improving antiretroviral treatment (ART) outcomes. Evidence indicates that community-based support interventions targeting patients known to be at risk will probably display better results than generic interventions aimed at the entire population of people living with HIV. It is however difficult to identify these at-risk populations, rendering knowledge on the characteristics of patients groups who are in need of community-based support a clear research priority. The current study aims to address the knowledge gap by exploring the predictors of the willingness to (1) receive the support from a community-based health worker or (2) to participate in a support group in public sector ART programme of the Free State Province of South Africa. Based on the Individual-Family-Community framework for HIV research, the study employs a comprehensive approach by not only testing classical individual-level but also family-level predictors of the willingness to receive community-based support. In addition to individual-level predictors—such as age, health status and coping styles—our analysis demonstrated the importance of family characteristics. The results indicated that discrepancies in the family’s changeability level were an important predictor of the demand for community-based support services. Conversely, the findings indicated that patients living in a family more flexible than deemed ideal are more likely to require the support of a community health worker. The current study expands theory by indicating the need to acknowledge all social ecological levels in the study of chronic HIV care. The detection of both individual level and family level determinants of the expressed need for community-based support can inform health policy to devise strategies to target scarce resources to those vulnerable patients who report the greatest need for this support. In this way, the study results are a first step in an attempt to move away from generic, broad based community-based interventions towards community support that is tailored to the patient needs at both the individual and family level.

Women's experience of HIV as a chronic illness in South Africa: hard-earned lives, biographical disruption and moral career

This article presents findings from a longitudinal qualitative study (48 in-depth interviews with 12 women on antiretroviral treatment (ART)) exploring the experience of living with HIV as a chronic illness in South Africa by applying the structural and interactionist perspectives on chronic illness. The structural perspective indicates that the illness experience needs to be contextualised within the wider framework of the women's hard-earned lives: throughout the interviews, the women tended to refuse singularising HIV/AIDS and continuously framed the illness within the context of general hardship and adversity. Employing an interactionist perspective, the repeated interviews demonstrated the partial applicability of the concept of biographical disruption to the illness experience: most women experienced feelings of denial and disbelief upon diagnosis, but the availability of ART clearly mitigated the impact of HIV on their biographies. In addition, our findings demonstrate that the interaction between structural aspects, (stigmatising) social relations, and the illness (and its treatment) determines the never-ending cycle of identity appraisals, revisions and improvements, rendering the moral career of the HIV-positive women on ART a continuous work in progress.

IAPAC Guidelines for Optimizing the HIV Care Continuum for Adults and Adolescents

BACKGROUND

An estimated 50% of people living with HIV (PLHIV) globally are unaware of their status. Among those who know their HIV status, many do not receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a timely manner, fail to remain engaged in care, or do not achieve sustained viral suppression. Barriers across the HIV care continuum prevent PLHIV from achieving the therapeutic and preventive effects of ART.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted, and 6132 articles, including randomized controlled trials, observational studies with or without comparators, cross-sectional studies, and descriptive documents, met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 1047 articles were used to generate 36 recommendations to optimize the HIV care continuum for adults and adolescents.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations are provided for interventions to optimize the HIV care environment; increase HIV testing and linkage to care, treatment coverage, retention in care, and viral suppression; and monitor the HIV care continuum.

Benefits of task-shifting HIV care to nurses in terms of health-related quality of life in patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in rural district hospitals in Cameroon [Stratall Agence Nationale de Recherche sur le SIDA (ANRS) 12110/Ensemble pour une Solidarité Thérapeutique Hospitalière en Réseau (ESTHER) substudy]

OBJECTIVES

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends task-shifting HIV care to nurses in low-resource settings with limited numbers of physicians. However, the effect of such task-shifting on the health-related quality of life (HRQL) of people living with HIV (PLHIV) has seldom been evaluated. We aimed to investigate the effect of task-shifting HIV care to nurses on HRQL outcomes in PLHIV initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) in rural district hospitals in Cameroon.

METHODS

Outcomes in PLHIV were longitudinally collected in the 2006-2010 Stratall trial. PLHIV were followed up for 24 months by nurses and/or physicians. Six HRQL dimensions were assessed during face-to-face interviews using the WHO Quality of Life (WHOQOL)-HIV BREF scale: physical health; psychological health; independence level; social relationships; environment; and spirituality/religion/personal beliefs. The degree of task-shifting was estimated using a consultant ratio (i.e. the ratio of nurse-led to physician-led visits). The effect of task-shifting and other potential correlates on HRQL dimensions was explored using a Heckman two-stage approach based on linear mixed models to adjust for the potential bias caused by missing data in the outcomes.

RESULTS

Of 1424 visits in 440 PLHIV (70.5% female; median age 36 years; median CD4 count 188 cells/μL at enrolment), 423 (29.7%) were task-shifted to nurses. After multiple adjustment, task-shifting was associated with higher HRQL level for four dimensions: physical health [coefficient 0.7; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.1-1.2; P = 0.01], psychological health (coefficient 0.5; 95% CI 0.0-1.0; P = 0.05), independence level (coefficient 0.6; 95% CI 0.1-1.1; P = 0.01) and environment (coefficient 0.6; 95% CI 0.1-1.0; P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Task-shifting HIV care to nurses benefits the HRQL of PLHIV. Together with the previously demonstrated comparable clinical effectiveness of physician-based and nurse-based models of HIV care, our results support the WHO recommendation for task-shifting.

Declining prevalence of probable depression among patients presenting for antiretroviral therapy in rural Uganda: the role of early treatment initiation

Little is known about trends in depression at antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation among people living with HIV (PLHIV) in low- and middle-income countries. We used data from an ongoing cohort of treatment-naïve PLHIV in rural Uganda to estimate secular trends in depression among PLHIV at ART initiation. We fitted linear regression models with depression symptom severity as the outcome variable and year of cohort entry (2005-2012) as the explanatory variable, adjusting for socio-demographic variables and assessing physical health score, body mass index (BMI), and CD4 count as potential mediators of a secular trend in depression symptom severity. There was a statistically significant negative association between year of entry and depression symptom severity, suggesting a 3.1 % relative decline in the mean depression symptom severity score at ART initiation in each year of study recruitment after the first year. This trend remained statistically significant after inclusion of baseline socio-demographic characteristics to the model and appeared to be driven by improved physical health scores, but not CD4 count or BMI.

Quality of life in individuals living with HIV/AIDS attending a public sector antiretroviral service in Cape Town, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Health related quality of life (HRQoL) is an important outcome helping to understand the impact of antiretroviral therapy (ART). We examined and compared the HRQoL in relation to ART status among HIV-infected patients in a public sector service in Cape Town, South Africa. In addition, we aimed to examine the relationship between ART status and HRQoL according to CD4 count strata.

METHODS

A cross sectional study sample of 903 HIV-infected patients who were categorized as not receiving ART (ART-naïve) or receiving first-line ART for > 6 months (ART). HRQoL outcomes were compared in the two groups. HRQoL was assessed using the EQ-5D (five domains) and Visual Analogue Scale (EQ-5D VAS).

RESULTS

Of the total sample, 435 were categorised as ART naïve (76% women) and 468 were on ART (78% women). There were no significant associations between groups for most of the EQ-5D domains, however ART-naïve experienced a significantly greater problem with mobility than the ART group. Being ART-naïve (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 3.08 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.63- 7.89) and obese 2.78 (95% CI 1.24- 6.22) were identified as predictors for increased mobility problems in multivariate analysis. In addition, receiving ART (5.61 difference; 95% CI 2.50 - 8.72) and having some source of income (4.76; 95% CI 1.63 -7.89) were identified as predictors for a higher EQ-5D VAS score. When grouped according to CD4 count strata, there were no significant difference between groups for most of the EQ-5D domains, however the ART-naïve group indicated having significantly greater problems under the CD4 count of >500 cells/μL in the anxiety/depression domain (22.4% vs 8.8%, p = 0.018) and significantly lower EQ-5D VAS scores under the CD4 counts of ≤ 200 cells/μL (median 80 (IQR 60-90) vs 90 (IQR 80-100), p = 0.0003) and 201-350 cells/μL (median 80 (IQR 70-90) vs 90 (80-100), p = 0.0004) compared to ART group.

CONCLUSIONS

HRQoL (self-rated health state) was improved with ART use, including those with immunocompromised status, which may be relevant to the public sector ART program in South Africa.

A peer adherence support intervention to improve the antiretroviral treatment outcomes of HIV patients in South Africa: the moderating role of family dynamics

Given the severe shortage of human resources in the healthcare sector in many countries with high HIV prevalence, community-based peer adherence support is being increasingly cited as an integral part of a sustainable antiretroviral treatment (ART) strategy. However, the available scientific evidence on this topic reports discrepant findings on the effectiveness of peer adherence support programmes. These conflicting findings to some extent can be attributed to the lack of attention to the social contexts in which peer adherence support programmes are implemented. This study explores the potential moderating role of family dynamics by assessing the differential impact of peer adherence support in different types of families, based on the theoretical underpinnings of the family functioning framework. These relationships were explored with the aid of multivariate statistical analysis of cross-sectional, post-trial data for a sample of 340 patients interviewed as part of the Effectiveness of Aids Treatment and Support in the Free State (FEATS) study conducted in the public-sector ART programme of the Free State Province of South Africa. The analysis reveals no significant overall differences in CD4 cell count between the intervention group accessing additional peer adherence support and the control group receiving standard care. When controlling for the potential moderating role of family dynamics, however, the outcomes clearly reveal a significant interaction effect between the adherence intervention and the level of family functioning with regard to treatment outcomes. Multi-group analysis demonstrates that peer adherence support has a positive effect on immunological restoration in well-functioning families, while having a negative effect in dysfunctional families. The study outcomes stress the need for peer adherence interventions that are sensitive to the suboptimal contexts in which they are often implemented. Generic, broad-based interventions do not necessarily facilitate the treatment adherence of the most vulnerable patient groups, particularly those without supportive family contexts. Tailoring interventions aimed at creating a health-enabling environment to the needs of these at-risk patients should therefore be a priority for both research and policy.

Assessment of service quality of public antiretroviral treatment (ART) clinics in South Africa: a cross-sectional study

Background

In South Africa the ever increasing demand for antiretroviral treatment (ART) runs the risk of leading to sub-optimal care in public sector ART clinics that are overburdened and under resourced. This study assessed the quality of ART services to identify service areas that require improvement.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was carried out at 16 of 17 public ART clinics in the target area in greater Pretoria, South Africa. Trained participant observers presented as ART qualifying HIV positive patients that required a visit to assess treatment readiness. They evaluated each facility on five different occasions between June and November 2009, assessing the time it took to get an appointment, the services available and accessed, service quality and the duration of the visit. Services (reception area, clinician’s consultation, HIV counselling, pharmacy, nutrition counselling and social worker’s assessment) were assessed against performance standards that apply to all clinics. Service quality was expressed as scores for clinic performance (CPS) and service performance (SPS), defined as the percentage of performance standards met per clinic and service area.

Results

In most of the clinics (62.5%) participant observers were able to obtain an appointment within one week, although on the day of their visit essential services could not always be accessed. The median CPS of the assessed facilities was 68.5 with four clinics not meeting minimum standards (CPS > 60). The service areas that performed least well were the clinician’s consultation (SPS 67.3) and HIV counselling (SPS 70.7). Most notably, clinicians performed a physical examination in only 41.1% of the visits and rarely did a complete TB symptom screening. Counsellors frequently failed to address prevention of HIV transmission.

Conclusions

Overall public sector ART clinics in greater Pretoria were easily accessible and their services were of an acceptable quality. However, the time spent at the clinic to complete the services was found to be very long and there was considerable variation in adherence to performance standards within the services, particularly in respect of clinician’s consultation and counselling. Clinic management needs to ensure efficient clinic organisation and to improve adherence to performance standards in key service areas.

Healthcare providers' experiences with adverse drug reactions and adherence challenges in antiretroviral therapy of HIV patients in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

PURPOSE

To gain insight into the experiences and handling of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) by the staffs of public primary healthcare (PHC) clinics in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, as well as their perceptions of related adherence challenges in the treatment and follow-up of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive patients.

METHODS

Healthcare providers working at the PHC level in the public sector in the study area were approached and asked to participate in focus group discussions (FGDs). Seven FGDs were conducted with 32 healthcare providers (9 nurses, 23 auxiliary staff). Questions introduced by the moderator of each FGD were freely discussed by the participants. Discussions were audio-recorded and subjected to thematic content analysis.

RESULTS

Several challenges in the treatment and follow-up of patients on ART were identified. These include: (1) lack of training of healthcare providers in PHC clinics to confidently identify, manage and treat the ADRs HIV-positive patients receiving ART; (2) patients' difficulty in communicating information on ADRS; (3) insufficient pharmacovigilance; (4) role of poverty.

CONCLUSION

Both nurses and auxiliary staff expressed lack of knowledge and confidence regarding ADRs in HIV patients and management of this. More emphasis is warranted on training the healthcare providers to identify ADRs and provide adequate advice for continued treatment of patients experiencing potential drug related problems.

The long road to universal antiretroviral treatment coverage in South Africa

In order to sustainably scale-up antiretroviral treatment (ART), South Africa needs to develop an efficient and effective implementation strategy, based on the best available scientific evidence. This article aims to bridge this knowledge gap first by describing the progress South Africa has made in the fight against HIV/AIDS in terms of virological efficacy, survival rates and retention in care, and second by identifying the potential remaining impediments to a durable and sustainable policy response to the epidemic. The study findings demonstrate that, despite favorable results in terms of virologic suppression, survival/mortality and retention in care, four challenges to a sustainable ART scale-up remain: first, the lack of integration of ART services into the general health system; second, the growing need for comprehensive HIV/AIDS care; third, the rising costs associated with the growing case load of people; and fourth, the crippling shortage in human resources for healthcare.

Who is accessing public-sector anti-retroviral treatment in the Free State, South Africa? An exploratory study of the first three years of programme implementation

Background

Although South Africa has the largest public-sector anti-retroviral treatment (ART) programme in the world, anti-retroviral coverage in adults was only 40.2% in 2008. However, longitudinal studies of who is accessing the South African public-sector ART programme are scarce. This study therefore had one main research question: who is accessing public-sector ART in the Free State Province, South Africa? The study aimed to extend the current literature by investigating, in a quantitative manner and using a longitudinal study design, the participants enrolled in the public-sector ART programme in the period 2004-2006 in the Free State Province of South Africa.

Methods

Differences in the demographic (age, sex, population group and marital status) socio-economic (education, income, neo-material indicators), geographic (travel costs, relocation for ART), and medical characteristics (CD4, viral load, time since first diagnosis, treatment status) among 912 patients enrolled in the Free State public-sector ART programme between 2004 and 2006 were assessed with one-way analysis of variance, Bonferroni post-hoc analysis, and cross tabulations with the chi square test.

Results

The patients accessing treatment tended to be female (71.1%) and unemployed (83.4%). However, although relatively poor, those most likely to access ART services were not the most impoverished patients. The proportion of female patients increased (P < 0.05) and their socio-economic situation improved between 2004 and 2006 (P < 0.05). The increasing mean transport cost (P < 0.05) to visit the facility is worrying, because this cost is an important barrier to ART uptake and adherence. Encouragingly, the study results revealed that the interval between the first HIV-positive diagnosis and ART initiation decreased steadily over time (P < 0.05). This was also reflected in the increasing baseline CD4 cell count at ART initiation (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Our analysis showed significant changes in the demographic, socio-economic, geographic, and medical characteristics of the patients during the first three years of the programme. Knowledge of the characteristics of these patients can assist policy makers in developing measures to retain them in care. The information reported here can also be usefully applied to target patient groups that are currently not reached in the implementation of the ART programme.