An evaluation of distal hair cortisol concentrations collected at delivery

Hair cortisol as a marker of stress in mild traumatic brain injury: a challenging measure

Cortisol is released through activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by physiological and psychological stressors, such as mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). This hormone is accumulated in hair over longer periods of time, reflecting both acute and chronic forms of stress, allowing for retrospective analyses within certain timeframes. The main objectives of this study were to analyze pre- and post-injury hair cortisol concentrations, and to explore possible associations with personality and recovery after mTBI. Hair samples of 61 mTBI patients were collected at 4-6 weeks post-injury and divided into pre- (1 cm) and post-injury (1 cm) segments. For comparison, hair samples of 24 age, sex and education matched healthy controls (HC) were collected and divided into similar segments. Cortisol was quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). At two weeks post-injury, post-traumatic symptoms (PTS), emotional distress (anxiety/depression), and the personality trait neuroticism were measured. At six months post-injury, PTS and functional recovery (Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended) were determined. A significant increase in hair cortisol concentration from pre- to post-injury was found for both mTBI patients and HC, likely due to washout effects, with similar concentrations in both groups. Neither hair cortisol, nor the interaction with neuroticism, were associated with long-term PTS or functional recovery. Additionally, no differences in hair cortisol were observed between patients with a higher and lower risk of developing persistent PTS based on a modified Post-Concussion Symptoms Rule (PoCS Rule) including demographics, acute symptoms, pre-injury mental health and head CT. Altogether, our findings do not support the current use of hair cortisol as a potential marker of stress in mTBI.

A systematic review of associations between hormone levels in hair and peripartum depression

Peripartum depression is a global health concern, characterized by mood disturbances inclusive of pregnancy through up to 12-months postpartum. Hormones play a vital role in pregnancy maintenance, fetal development, and labor and delivery and change significantly as a function of pregnancy and childbirth. However, such life sustaining changes may have consequences related to risk for peripartum depression. To date, most studies that have examined hormones in relation to peripartum depression have focused on blood or saliva sampling approaches, though hair analysis offers unique information on trajectories of hormone concentrations over more sustained periods of time (i.e., over months). The aim of this systematic review was to provide a comprehensive review of the association between hair measures of hormones (i.e., cortisol, progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone) and depression during the peripartum period. Forty-one studies were identified for inclusion. A majority of studies reported statistically null associations. Between-person studies varied widely in reported direction and magnitude of hair hormone-depression associations, most likely attributable to a wide range of methodological approaches including timing of assessments and sample size. Studies using within-person approaches observed positive coupling of cortisol concentration and symptoms across time. Most studies focused exclusively on cortisol. We recommend future research consider both stress and reproductive hormones, prioritize within-person change in hormone levels given this is a period of dramatic change, and include contextual (e.g., social support, adverse and benevolent childhood experiences, physical and psychiatric conditions) features that may modify both changes in hormones and the association between hormone levels and depression in the peripartum period.

The association between pre-pregnancy and first-trimester hair cortisol and preterm birth: a causal inference model

Adverse life events and chronic psychological distress before and during pregnancy have frequently been associated with preterm birth but the biological underpinnings remain unclear. We investigated the association between corticosteroid levels in pre-pregnancy and first-trimester hair and the risk of preterm birth. We followed N = 1,807 pregnant women from a prospective pre-birth cohort study in Lima, Perú. Hair samples were taken at the end of the first pregnancy trimester. The two most proximal 3 cm segments to the scalp (representing pre-pregnancy and first-trimester) were analyzed to obtain hair cortisol and cortisone concentrations (HCC and HCNC). Preterm birth was defined as birth < 37 completed gestational weeks. We constructed four generalized propensity scores for pre-pregnancy and first-trimester HCC and HCNC to create corresponding inverse probability weights before fitting marginal structural models for estimating the effect of HCC and HCNC on preterm birth risk. Pre-pregnancy Log HCC was not independently associated with preterm birth risk (RR = 0.97; 95%CI: 0.79, 1.19), nor was pre-pregnancy Log HCNC (RR = 0.84; 95%CI: 0.58, 1.20). In the first trimester, a one SD increase in Log HCC was associated with a 37% increased risk of preterm birth (95%CI: 1.11, 1.69), whereas Log HCNC was not significantly associated with preterm birth risk (RR = 1.20; 95%CI: 0.87, 1.65). Our findings show that chronic corticosteroid levels in early pregnancy are causally linked to preterm birth risk in pregnant Peruvian women. This finding contributes to understanding the biological underpinnings of preterm birth better to enhance its prevention.

Characterization of hair cortisol concentration pre-conception and during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis is a system involved in stress and pregnancy regulation, and hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is a promising biomarker of its activity. Assessing factors that influence HCC in the prenatal period is critical to understand whether and how HPA axis (dys-)regulation influences maternal health and child development, particularly in high-risk populations from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

AIMS

This study aimed at characterizing preconception and pregnancy HCC with respect to multiple sociodemographic, pregnancy-related, and hair-related factors.

METHODS

In a sample of N = 2581 pregnant women in Perú, participants from two cohort studies provided a 6 cm scalp hair sample at three prenatal timepoints. Each hair sample was cut into two segments of 3 cm that represent cortisol secretion at four times: preconception, first-, second- and third trimester of pregnancy. Hair cortisol was extracted using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Spearman correlations, paired t-tests, and ANOVA were used to assess differences in log-transformed values of HCC (logHCC) across maternal sociodemographic, pregnancy-related, and hair-related factors. Multivariable linear regressions were used to examine independent associations of HCCs with selected correlates.

RESULTS

Mean logHCC values showed an increase across the four prenatal periods. Preconception BMI was consistently associated with HCC in all three trimesters, while difficulty accessing basic foods, education, hair dyeing, and infant sex showed time-specific associations with HCCs. In sensitivity analyses, we detected no substantial segment effects in the associations of HCCs with maternal characteristics.

CONCLUSION

This study is the largest to characterize HCC in pregnant women from a LMIC. Our findings provide a foundation for the use of HCC as a biomarker of prenatal HPA axis activity for future studies. This foundation may contribute to finding valid biomarkers of stress-response systems to promote maternal and child health.

The association between maternal prenatal hair cortisol concentration and preterm birth: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The risk of preterm birth (PTB) increases when experiencing stress during pregnancy. Chronic stress has been associated with a dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, for which hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is a promising biomarker. However, previous studies on the association between HCC and PTB yielded inconsistent results. This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesized previous studies on the association between maternal HCC before and during pregnancy and spontaneous PTB.

METHODS

Data was extracted from N = 11 studies with k = 19 effect sizes retrieved from PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL and citation searching by hand in June 2023 and updated in October 2023. Standardized mean differences were calculated, and a random-effects three-level meta-analysis was conducted. Effect heterogeneity was assessed using Q and I2.

RESULTS

HCC during pregnancy was higher among PTB than term groups, but effects were not statistically significant (z = 0.11, 95% CI: - 0.28, 0.51, p = .54) and total heterogeneity was high (Q16 = 60.01, p < .001, I2Total = 92.30%). After leaving out two possible outlier studies in sensitivity analyses, HCC was lower among preterm compared to term delivering groups, although not statistically significant (z = - 0.06, 95% CI: - 0.20, 0.08, p = .39) but with a substantially reduced total heterogeneity (Q12 = 16.45, p = .17, I2Total = 42.15%). No moderators affected the estimates significantly, but an effect of trimester and gestational age at delivery is likely.

CONCLUSION

There is currently no evidence of prenatal HCC differences between PTB and term groups as effects were small, imprecise, and not significant. Low statistical power and methodological weaknesses of the small-scale studies challenge possible biological inferences from the small effects, but further research on HCC during pregnancy is highly encouraged.

The Association Between Pre-Pregnancy and First-Trimester Hair Cortisol and Preterm Birth: A Causal Inference Model

Background Adverse life events and chronic psychological distress before and during pregnancy have frequently been associated with preterm birth (PTB) but the biological underpinnings remain unclear. We investigated the association between corticosteroid levels in pre-pregnancy and first-trimester hair and the risk of PTB. Methods We followed 1,808 pregnant women from a prospective pre-birth cohort study in Lima, Perú. Hair samples were taken at the end of the first pregnancy trimester. The two most proximal 3cm segments to the scalp (representing pre-pregnancy and first-trimester) were analyzed to obtain hair cortisol and cortisone concentrations (HCC and HCNC). PTB was defined as birth < 37 completed gestational weeks. We constructed four generalized propensity scores for pre-pregnancy and first-trimester HCC and HCNC to create corresponding inverse probability weights before fitting marginal structural models for estimating the effect of HCC and HCNC on PTB risk. Results Pre-pregnancy Log HCC was not independently associated with PTB risk (RR = 0.97; 95%CI: 0.79, 1.19). In contrast, one SD increase from the mean first-trimester Log HCC was independently associated with a 37% (95%CI: 1.11, 1.69) increased risk of PTB. Although imprecise, pre-pregnancy Log HCNC was negatively associated with PTB risk (RR = 0.84; 95%CI: 0.58, 1.20), whereas the association between first-trimester Log HCNC and PTB risk was positive (RR = 1.20; 95%CI: 0.87, 1.65). Conclusions Our findings show that chronic corticosteroid levels in early pregnancy are causally linked to PTB risk in pregnant Peruvian women. This finding contributes to understanding the biological underpinnings of PTB better to enhance PTB prevention.

Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens

Cannabis and associated substances are some of the most frequently abused drugs across the globe, mainly due to their anxiolytic and euphorigenic properties. Nowadays, the analysis of hair samples has been given high importance in forensic and analytical sciences and in clinical studies because they are associated with a low risk of infection, do not require complicated storage conditions, and offer a broad window of non-invasive detection. Analysis of hair samples is very easy compared to the analysis of blood, urine, and saliva samples. This review places particular emphasis on methodologies of analyzing hair samples containing cannabis, with a special focus on the preparation of samples for analysis, which involves screening and extraction techniques, followed by confirmatory assays. Through this manuscript, we have presented an overview of the available literature on the screening of cannabis using mass spectroscopy techniques. We have presented a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique, to establish it as a suitable method for the analysis of cannabis from hair samples.

Correlates of preconception and pregnancy hair cortisol concentrations

Assessing factors that influence chronic stress biomarkers like hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs) in pregnancy is critical to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes. Thus, we aimed to identify correlates of HCC preconception and during pregnancy. 2,581 pregnant women participated in the study. HCC was available at four time periods: pre-pregnancy (0-3 months preconception, n = 1,023), and in the first (1-12 weeks, n = 1,734), second (13-24 weeks, n = 1,534), and third (25-36 weeks, n = 835) trimesters. HCC was assessed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Sociodemographic, pregnancy- and hair-related characteristics, and measures of psychosocial stress, were interrogated as potential correlates of HCC. Spearman correlations, paired t-tests, and ANOVA were used to assess differences in log-transformed values of HCC (logHCC) across maternal characteristics. Multivariable linear regressions were used to identify the correlates of HCCs after adjusting for confounders. Mean logHCC values increased across the four prenatal periods (P < 0.001). In multivariable analyses, pre-pregnancy BMI was consistently associated with all HCCs, while gestational age, economic hardship, hair dyeing, and depression, showed time-specific associations with HCC. In conclusion, this study showed evidence of factors influencing HCC levels before and during pregnancy. The most consistent association was seen with pre-pregnancy BMI. Depression was also associated with HCC concentrations.

Association between Parent-Child Relationship and Second-Time Mother's Prenatal Depressive Symptoms: The Mediation Role of Parenting Burnout

PURPOSE

The aim of this research was to study the association between the mother-firstborn relationship and second-time mothers' prenatal depressive symptoms before the birth of a second child and the mediation role of parenting burnout on this relationship.

METHODS

Empirical study was adopted in this research. Using a convenient sampling method, we recruited 110 second-time mothers who were in their third trimester of pregnancy. Child-parent relationship questionnaire, parenting burnout scale, and Beck Depression Instrument were used to measure the relationship between firstborn and second-time mothers, mothers' parenting burnout, and prenatal depressive symptoms, respectively. Regression analysis was conducted to test the relationship between variables, and the mediation effect was tested using PROCESS.

RESULTS

Regression results showed that the parent-child relationship is negatively associated with second-time mothers' prenatal depressive symptoms. The parent-child relationship is negatively associated with parenting burnout which is positively related to prenatal depressive symptoms. When considering the mediation variable of parenting burnout, the direct effect is not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Parent-child relationship has a significant impact on second-time mothers' prenatal depressive symptoms, and this relationship is mediated by parenting burnout.

Prenatal hair cortisol concentrations during the COVID-19 outbreak: Associations with maternal psychological stress and infant temperament

BACKGROUND

Maternal psychological stress during pregnancy, including stress resulting from disasters and trauma, has been linked to temperamental difficulties in offspring. Although heightened cortisol concentrations are often hypothesized as an underlying mechanism, evidence supporting this mechanism is not consistent, potentially because of methodological issues and low stress in the population.

AIM

To address these issues, this preregistered study investigated the following associations between: 1) prenatal psychological stress and hair cortisol, as a biomarker for chronic stress, during the COVID-19 outbreak (i.e., as a major worldwide psychological stressor), and 2) maternal hair cortisol during the COVID-19 outbreak and later infant temperamental negative affectivity and orienting/regulation. Additionally, we explored whether associations were different for women with low versus high socioeconomic status (SES; maternal education and annual household income) and at different stages of pregnancy.

METHOD

Pregnant women (N = 100) filled out online questionnaires during the first COVID-19 lockdown. Six months later, when most mothers were still pregnant or had just given birth, maternal hair samples were collected during home visits. When infants were six months old, mothers reported on their infant's temperament.

RESULTS

Although hierarchical regression analyses revealed no associations between prenatal COVID-19 psychological stress and hair cortisol during the COVID-19 outbreak, SES proved to be a moderator in this association. Only pregnant women with higher levels of SES, not lower levels, showed a positive association between work-related and social support-related COVID-19 worries and hair cortisol. Finally, prenatal hair cortisol was not associated with later infant temperamental negative affectivity and orienting/regulation.

CONCLUSION

Although the COVID-19 outbreak proved to be a major psychological stressor worldwide, the physiological impact of the crisis might be different for pregnant women with higher SES as compared to lower SES.

A systematic review of hair cortisol during pregnancy: Reference ranges and methodological considerations

The present study systematically reviewed 56 articles that assessed hair cortisol concentrations during pregnancy collected from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science on 8/9/19 and updated on 6/29/20. Our goals were to establish reference ranges by trimester based on published studies. The majority of any given sample (e.g., 70 %, the range of -1SD to +1SD) is expected to fall between 0 and 34.15 pg/mg in trimester 1 and 2, and between 8.59 and 44 pg/mg in trimester 3, with very wide ranges (e.g., values of >250 pg/mg) and substantially higher values (e.g., averages of 200's-300's reaching as high as 768 pg/mg) coming out of one specific lab. Delineating a reference range for hair cortisol concentrations across pregnancy is challenging because of known factors like differences in values returned by different laboratories and assay types. We observed inconsistency in descriptions of the data and data preparation steps post-assay. Key findings include that only half of the studies examining all three trimesters showed a constant increase in mean levels (most retrospectively assessed via segmenting), with considerable variability in patterns of change. None of the studies reported individual patterns of change. Examining within-person changes are an important next step for the field. We conclude that researchers should more clearly report decisions around outliers, units, and specifics of data transformations in the future in order to improve our ability to compare findings across studies, to understand differences in HCC values reported, and potentially to understand differences in reported associations of HCC with other phenotypes in the literature.

Assessment of prenatal stress-related cortisol exposure: focus on cortisol accumulation in hair and nails

Prenatal stress adversely affects offspring development. Although cortisol is hypothesized to be a key mediator of stress-induced developmental deficits, determining the amount of fetal cortisol exposure produced by maternal stress has proved challenging. Current approaches, such as measuring cortisol concentrations in maternal plasma, saliva, or urine, amniotic fluid, fetal plasma, or cord blood, all have significant limitations for assessing cumulative fetal cortisol exposure over time. A recently emerging approach is to measure cortisol concentrations in maternal hair and/or newborn hair or nail samples. Maternal hair cortisol potentially shows long-term production across each trimester of pregnancy, whereas neonatal hair or nail cortisol is thought to reflect mainly third trimester hormone accumulation. This review first describes fetal adrenocortical development, placental cortisol metabolism, and the various sources of fetal cortisol exposure across pregnancy. We then summarize the results obtained from "classical" methods of assessing prenatal cortisol exposure prior to the advent of hair and nail cortisol measurement. Lastly, we discuss the initial development and validation of the hair cortisol methodology, its subsequent application to studies of chronic stress, and recent findings regarding maternal and neonatal hair or nail cortisol concentrations in relation to prenatal stress and other variables of interest.

Prenatal maternal hair cortisol concentrations are related to maternal prenatal emotion dysregulation but not neurodevelopmental or birth outcomes

Hair cortisol concentrations measured during pregnancy have emerged as a novel biomarker for prenatal stress exposure. However, associations between prenatal stress and distress, broadly defined, and hair cortisol concentrations during pregnancy are inconsistent. We examined relations among hair cortisol concentrations during the third trimester with (a) emotion dysregulation and (b) detailed measures of maternal prenatal stress. We also examined the predictive validity of maternal hair cortisol during pregnancy for adverse newborn health outcomes. Cortisol concentrations were derived from 6 cm of hair during the third trimester of pregnancy. Mothers reported on their emotion dysregulation and stress at this time. A standardized newborn neurobehavioral exam was conducted shortly after birth and newborn birth weight and gestational age were assessed from medical records. All hypotheses were preregistered on the Open Science Framework (osf.io/279ng). High levels of emotion dysregulation, but not stress, were predictive of high hair cortisol concentrations. Maternal prenatal BMI mediated the relation between maternal prenatal emotion dysregulation and hair cortisol concentrations. There was no association between hair cortisol and infant birth outcomes. This research supports the notion that transdiagnostic markers of psychopathology are important correlates of hair cortisol concentrations during pregnancy.

Maternal and Neonatal Hair Cortisol Levels and Psychological Stress Are Associated With Onset of Secretory Activation of Human Milk Production

BACKGROUND

Several factors can influence the production of mothers' own milk.

PURPOSE

To assess the influence of maternal psychological stress, maternal cortisol levels, and neonatal hair cortisol levels on timing of secretory activation.

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted at 2 public health centers in Andalusia, Spain. Participants were 60 pregnant women and their 60 neonates. Hair cortisol levels and psychological stress (pregnancy-specific stress [Prenatal Distress Questionnaire, PDQ] and perceived stress [Perceived Stress Scale, PSS]) were evaluated during the third trimester and the postpartum period. This study was part of the GESTASTRESS cohort study on the effects of stress during pregnancy.

RESULTS

Higher PDQ and PSS scores (P < .05) in the third trimester were associated with later onset of secretory activation. Higher postpartum maternal hair cortisol levels were associated with a delayed secretory activation of mother's own milk (P < .05).

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Future studies should look at the influence of psychological stress and cortisol levels on hormones involved in mother's own milk production.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Neonatal nurses and other healthcare providers should be familiar with levels of neonates' exposure to maternal prenatal stress prior to birth.

Stress and hair cortisol concentrations from preconception to the third trimester

Stress is an important and modifiable determinant of health, and its association with hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) during pregnancy remains unclear. We selected a random sample of 97 participants from a cohort of pregnant participants attending prenatal clinics in Lima, Peru. Each provided a hair sample at enrollment (mean gestational age = 13.1 weeks) and again at full-term delivery. Hair samples were segmented to reflect HCC in preconception and each trimester. At enrollment, measures of stress included: difficulty accessing basic goods, educational attainment, exposure to violence, fair or poor general health, perceived stress, and symptoms of depression, general anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Linear mixed models evaluated the association between each stress measure and absolute and relative changes in HCC. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) assessed correlations between HCC and continuous stress scores. Educational attainment of ≤12 years was associated with higher HCC in preconception and the 1st trimester, and general anxiety with lower preconception HCC. When modeling HCC patterns across the 4 hair segments, an educational attainment of ≤12 years was associated with higher HCC, high perceived stress with lower HCC, and general anxiety with steeper increases in HCC (group by time p value = .02). Only preconception HCC and GAD scores correlated (r = -0.22, p = .04). We observed few associations between stress and HCC. However, those that were seen were generally restricted to the preconception and 1st trimester. Further investigations into the association between stress and changes in HCC across pregnancy are warranted, and should include the preconception where possible.