Triacylglycerols Determination by High-temperature Gas Chromatography in the Analysis of Vegetable Oils and Foods: A Review of the Past 10 Years

Discrimination/Classification of Edible Vegetable Oils from Raman Spatially Solved Fingerprints Obtained on Portable Instrumentation

Currently, the combination of fingerprinting methodology and environmentally friendly and economical analytical instrumentation is becoming increasingly relevant in the food sector. In this study, a highly versatile portable analyser based on Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) obtained fingerprints of edible vegetable oils (sunflower and olive oils), and the capability of such fingerprints (obtained quickly, reliably and without any sample treatment) to discriminate/classify the analysed samples was evaluated. After data treatment, not only unsupervised pattern recognition techniques (as HCA and PCA), but also supervised pattern recognition techniques (such as SVM, kNN and SIMCA), showed that the main effect on discrimination/classification was associated with those regions of the Raman fingerprint related to free fatty acid content, especially oleic and linoleic acid. These facts allowed the discernment of the original raw material used in the oil's production. In all the models established, reliable qualimetric parameters were obtained.

Revealing adulterated olive oils by triacylglycerol screening methods: Beyond the official method

Official control methods to detect olive oil (OO) adulteration fail to provide satisfactory consumer protection. Thus, faster and more sensitive screening tools are needed to increase their effectiveness. Here, the official method for adulterant detection in OO was compared with three untargeted screening methods based on triacylglycerol analysis using high-throughput (FIA-HESI-HRMS; HT-GC-MS; HPLC-RID) and pattern recognition techniques (PLS-DA). They were assayed on a set of genuine and adulterated samples with a high natural variability (n = 143). The sensitivity of the official method was 1 for high linoleic (HL) blends at ≥2 % but only 0.39 for high oleic (HO) blends at ≥5 %, while specificity was 0.96. The sensitivity of the screening methods in external validation was 0.90-0.99 for the detection of HL and 0.82-0.88 for HO blends. Among them, HT-GC-MS offered the highest sensitivity (0.94) and specificity (0.76), proving to be the most suitable screening tool for OO authentication.

Lipidomics in food quality and authentication: A comprehensive review of novel trends and applications using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques

Lipid analysis is an integral part of food authentication and quality control which provides consumers with the necessary information to make an informed decision about their lipid intake. Recent advancement in lipid analysis and lipidome scope represents great opportunities for food science. In this review we provide a comprehensive overview of available tools for extraction, analysis and interpretation of data related to dietary fats analyses. Different analytical platforms are discussed including GC, MS, NMR, IR and UV with emphasis on their merits and limitations alongside complementary tools such as chemometric models and lipid-targeted online databases. Applications presented here include quality control, authentication of organic and delicacy food, tracing dietary fat source and investigating the effect of heat/storage on lipids. A multitude of analytical methods with different sensitivity, affordability, reproducibility and ease of operation are now available to comprehensively analyze dietary fats. Application of these methods range from studies which favor the use of large data generating platforms such as MS-based methods, to routine quality control which demands easy to use affordable equipment as TLC and IR. Hence, this review provides a navigation tool for food scientists to help develop an optimal protocol for their future lipid analysis quest.

HPLC Method for Separation of Cannabidiol Hemp Seed Oil with Skin Lipids and Tandem HRMS Technology for Characterization of a Chemical Marker

Cannabidiol (CBD) hemp seed oil is a commercial raw material with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits that has been formulated into body wash and skin care products. The biggest analytical challenge is how to simultaneously quantify CBD and hemp seed oil as they deposited on the skin surface. CBD is easily separated and quantified from skin surface extracts via a HPLC-mass spectrometry methodology. However, the structural skeleton of triacylglycerides (TAGs) in hemp seed oil is same as those from the skin surface sebum. The strong hydrophobicity with subtle structural difference challenges their separation. In this project, a new reverse phase HPLC-high resolution mass spectrometry methodology was developed with a strong mobile phase normal propanol. The separated hemp seed oil TAGs in the chromatogram were identified and characterized using data-dependent acquisition (DDA) technology. Based on the daughter ion characterization, the separated peak with an ammonium adduct at 890.7226 [M + NH4]+ was confirmed as the parent ion of glycerol with three omega-3 fatty acid chains. This is the first time TAG structure with direct HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry technology has been elucidated without a hydrolysis reaction. The confirmed TAG structure with an ammonium adduct at 890.7226 ± 0.0020 can be used as a representative chemical marker for the hemp seed oil quantification.

Determination of the δ2 H values of high molecular weight lipids by high-temperature gas chromatography coupled to isotope ratio mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

The hydrogen isotopic composition of lipids (δ² H_lipid ) is widely used in food science and as a proxy for past hydrological conditions. Determining the δ² H values of large, well-preserved triacylglycerides and other microbial lipids, such as glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT) lipids, is thus of widespread interest but has so far not been possible due to their low volatility which prohibits analysis by traditional gas chromatography/pyrolysis/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/P/IRMS).

METHODS

We determined the δ² H values of large, polar molecules and applied high-temperature gas chromatography (HTGC) methods on a modified GC/P/IRMS system. The system used a high-temperature 7-m GC column, and a glass Y-splitter for low thermal mass. Methods were validated using authentic standards of large, functionalised molecules (triacylglycerides, TGs), purified standards of GDGTs. The results were compared with δ² H values determined by high-temperature elemental analyser/pyrolysis/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (HTEA/P/IRMS), and subsequently applied to the analysis of GDGTs in a sample from a methane seep and a Welsh peat.

RESULTS

The δ² H values of TGs agreed within error between HTGC/P/IRMS and HTEA/IRMS, with HTGC/P/IRMS showing larger errors. Archaeal lipid GDGTs with up to three cyclisations could be analysed: the δ² H values were not significantly different between methods with standard deviations of 5 to 6 ‰. When environmental samples were analysed, the δ² H values of isoGDGTs were 50 ‰ more negative than those of terrestrial brGDGTs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the HTGC/P/IRMS method developed here is appropriate to determine the δ² H values of TGs, GDGTs with up to two cyclisations, and potentially other high molecular weight compounds. The methodology will widen the current analytical window for biomarker and food light stable isotope analyses. Moreover, our initial measurements suggest that bacterial and archaeal GDGT δ² H values can record environmental and ecological conditions.

Multidimensional gas chromatographic‒Mass spectrometric method for separation and identification of triacylglycerols in olive oil

A 'heart-cut' multidimensional gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry (H/C MDGC‒MS) method for separation and identification of triacylglycerols (TAGs) in extra virgin olive oil was developed. A GC configuration, comprising a non-polar first dimension (¹D) column (15 m length) and a mid-polarity second dimension (²D) column (9 m length), was employed. Standard TAGs were used to test and demonstrate the H/C MDGC method, for identification of TAG components and to validate the method. Various chromatographic conditions such as column flow and temperature program were evaluated. The ¹D separation resulted in overlap of some standard TAG peaks. These overlapped ¹D regions of the standard TAGs were H/C to ²D for further separation and resulted in clearly distinguished individual TAG component peaks. The ¹D separation of olive oil TAGs displayed three major peaks and four minor peaks. The application of the H/C MDGC method to olive oil TAGs resulted in the separation of each sampled ¹D region into two or more TAG peaks. TAG components in olive oil resolved on the ²D column were identified based on characteristic mass fragment ions such as [M-RCO₂]⁺, [RCO+128]⁺, [RCO+74]⁺ and RCO⁺ and comparison of their mass spectra with that of the standard TAGs. Sixteen olive oil TAGs were identified by MS after ²D separation. The repeatability of the H/C method was evaluated in terms of retention time shift and area response in the ²D and found to be <0.02% and <8% RSD respectively.

Determination of Triacylglycerols by HTGC-FID as a Sensitive Tool for the Identification of Rapeseed and Olive Oil Adulteration

Triacylglycerols (TGs) are the most common compounds in food lipids, accounting for 95% of the weight of edible oils. The aim of this study was to scrutinize a procedure for quantitatively assessing possible adulteration of olive and rapeseed oil through GC-FID analysis of TGs. The recovery of TG standards ranged from 21% to 148%, and the relative response factor (RRF) ranged from 0.42 to 2.28. The limits of detection were in the range of 0.001 to 0.330 µg/mL, and the limits of quantitation from 0.001 to 1.000 µg/mL. The validated method was used to determine the TGs in olive oil (OO), refined rapeseed oil (RRO), and their blends. Eight TGs were detected in refined rapeseed oil, and 10 in olive oil. The addition of 1% of olive oil to rapeseed oil or vice versa can be detected using this method. Three triacylglycerols were pinpointed as indicators of adulteration of rapeseed oil with olive oil (PPO, PPL, PSO). The method described here can be used for controlling the quality of these oils.

Eleven Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oils from Olives Grown and Processed under the Same Conditions: Effect of the Cultivar on the Chemical Composition and Sensory Traits

Eleven Italian monovarietal extra virgin olive oils (MEVOOs) (Carboncella, Coratina, Frantoio, Leccino, Marzio, Maurino, Moraiolo, Piantone di Falerone, Pendolino, Rosciola, Sargano di Fermo) from olives grown in the same experimental olive orchard, under the same conditions (fertilization, irrigation), and processed with the same technology (three-way continuous plant) were investigated. As a result, the impact of the olive cultivar on fatty acid and triacylglycerols composition, oxidative stability, polar phenolic profile and sensory properties (panel test) of the oil was assessed. Pendolino, Maurino and Marzio oils presented the highest levels (p < 0.01) of palmitic, linoleic and linolenic acids % and the lowest oleic:linoleic ratio. Within triacylglycerols, triolein (OOO) strongly varied among the oils, with Coratina and Leccino having the highest content. Frantoio showed the lowest 1-Stearoyl-2-palmitoyl-3-oleylglycerol and 1,3-Distearoyl-2-oleylglycerol amounts. Rosciola showed the highest level (p < 0.01) for two of the most abundant secoiridoid derivatives (the dialdehydic forms of decarboxymethyl elenolic acid linked to hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol). A good correlation was found between total phenolic content and oxidative stability, indicating Marzio and Leccino respectively as the richest and poorest genotypes. Sensory variability among varieties was mainly linked to perceived bitterness, pungency and fruitiness, while no effects were found on secondary flavors.

Discrimination of bovine milk from non-dairy milk by lipids fingerprinting using routine matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry

An important sustainable development goal for any country is to ensure food security by producing a sufficient and safe food supply. This is the case for bovine milk where addition of non-dairy milks such as vegetables (e.g., soya or coconut) has become a common source of adulteration and fraud. Conventionally, gas chromatography techniques are used to detect key lipids (e.g., triacylglycerols) has an effective read-out of assessing milks origins and to detect foreign milks in bovine milks. However, such approach requires several sample preparation steps and a dedicated laboratory environment, precluding a high throughput process. To cope with this need, here, we aimed to develop a novel and simple method without organic solvent extractions for the detection of bovine and non-dairy milks based on lipids fingerprint by routine MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS). The optimized method relies on the simple dilution of milks in water followed by MALDI-TOF MS analyses in the positive linear ion mode and using a matrix consisting of a 9:1 mixture of 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid and 2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoic acid (super-DHB) solubilized at 10 mg/mL in 70% ethanol. This sensitive, inexpensive, and rapid method has potential for use in food authenticity applications.

Star-poly(ε-caprolactone) as the stationary phase for capillary gas chromatographic separation

This work presents the separation performance of star-poly(ε-caprolactone) (star-PCL) as the stationary phase for capillary gas chromatography (GC). The statically coated star-PCL column showed a column efficiency of 3345 plates per m and moderate polarity. Importantly, the star-PCL column exhibited high selectivity and resolving capability for more than a dozen mixtures covering a wide-ranging variety of analytes and isomers. Among them, the star-PCL column displayed advantageous resolving capability over the commercial DB-1701 column for aromatic amine isomers such as toluidine, chloroaniline and bromoaniline. Moreover, it was applied for the determination of isomer impurities in real samples, showing good potential in GC applications.

Differentiation of avocados according to their botanical variety using liquid chromatographic fingerprinting and multivariate classification tree

BACKGROUND

The oil content, composition and marketing threshold value of an avocado depends on the cultivar hence, identifying the cultivar of the avocado fruit is desirable. However, analytical methods have not been reported with this aim.

RESULTS

A multivariate classification tree method was proposed to discriminate three commercial botanical varieties of avocado: Hass, Fuerte and Bacon, using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a charged aerosol detector (HPLC-CAD). Prior to the chromatographic analysis the avocados were lyophilized and then the oil fraction was extracted using a pressurized liquid extraction system. Normal and reverse phase liquid chromatography were applied in order to obtain the chromatographic fingerprint for each sample. Soft independent modelling of class analogies (SIMCA) and partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were applied. Classification quality metrics were determined to evaluate the performance of the classification. Several strategies to develop the classification models were employed. Finally, the useful application of 'classification trees' methodology, which has been scarcely applied in the field of analytical food control, was evaluated to perform a multiclass classification.

CONCLUSION

Discrimination of the three botanical varieties was achieved. The best classification was obtained when the PLS-DA is applied on the normal-phase chromatographic fingerprints. Classification trees are showed to be useful tools that provide complementary information to single concatenated models showing different results from the same prediction sample set. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Simultaneous high-temperature gas chromatography with flame ionization and mass spectrometric analysis of monocarboxylic acids and acylglycerols in biofuels and biofuel intermediate products

Triacyl-, diacyl- and monoacylglycerols (TAGs, DAGs, MAGs) along with monocarboxylic acids (MCAs) are intermediate products in many triacylglycerol oil-to-biofuel conversion pathways. Accumulation of these compounds leads to poor biofuel characteristics and may result in fuel system damage. We developed a method for simultaneous identification and quantification of a wide range of MCAs (C₄-C₁₈), MAGs, DAGs, and TAGs. The method is based on trimethylsilylation followed by high temperature GC with programmed temperature vaporizer (PTV) injection coupled to parallel FID and MS detectors (HTGC-FID/MS). To minimize the discrimination of both low and high molecular weight species typically occurring on the injector, we optimized injection conditions using a central composite design. The critical variables were the time at initial temperature (40 °C), splitless time, and the interaction between these two parameters. Among three tested electron ionization source/quadrupole analyzer temperatures, a 350/200 °C setting provided the highest response and signal-to-noise ratio for TAGs and did not have an effect on MAGs and DAGs. Similar results were obtained when quantifying target analytes in intermediate products of soybean oil cracking with FID and MS (using specific acylglycerol fragmentation ions). The instrumental FID limits of detection (LODs) were 0.07-0.27 ng for most of the target analytes. Selected ion monitoring (SIM) LODs were 0.01-0.05 ng for MCAs and 0.03-0.14 ng for acylglycerols. For the total ion current (TIC), LODs observed increased with acyl chain length and degree of unsaturation, resulting in an increase from 0.05 to 0.18 ng for MCAs (C₅ to C₁₈) and from 0.03 to 1.8 ng for acylglycerols (TAGs C₈ to C₂₂). Deviations in the repeatability of sample preparation, intra- and inter-day analyses, including sample stability over an eight-day time period, did not exceed 10% variance. These results demonstrate that the developed method is accurate and robust for the determination of acylglycerols and MCAs produced during the processing of TAGs into biofuels.

Characterization of Positional Distribution of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerol Molecular Compositions of Marine Fish Oils Rich in Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

The regiospecific characteristics of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in triacylglycerol (TAG) significantly affect the physicochemical and physiological properties of marine fish oils. In this study, the TAG molecular species composition and positional distributions of fatty acids were investigated in three marine fish species rich in omega-3 PUFAs (anchovy, tuna, and salmon). The regiospecific distribution of the fatty acids was measured with the allylmagnesium bromide (AMB) degradation method. The TAG compositions were analyzed with HPLC and the TAG molecular species were identified with APCI/MS. DHA was preferentially distributed at the sn-2 position of TAG, whereas EPA was evenly distributed along the glycerol backbone. The combinations of FAs, DDO, EOP, EPS, DSS, OOS, and PPS were the predominant TAG molecular species, and OOP, DOS, and DPoPo were the characteristic TAG molecules in the anchovy, salmon, and tuna, respectively. These data can be used to distinguish other marine fish species. The TAG composition categorized by TCN and ECN showed well-structured distributions, with double or triple peaks. These findings should greatly extend the use of marine fish oils in food production and may significantly affect the future development of the fish oil industry.

Research advances based on mass spectrometry for profiling of triacylglycerols in oils and fats and their applications

Vegetable oils and animal fats are dietary source of lipids that play critical and multiple roles in biological function. Triacylglycerols (TAGs) are the principal component of oils and fats with significant difference in profile among different oils and fats. TAG profiling is essential for nutritional evaluation, quality control and assurance of safety in oils and fats. However, analysis of TAGs is a challenging task because of the complicated composition of TAGs and their similar physicochemical properties in oils and fats. The rapid development of mass spectrometry (MS) technology in recent years makes it possible to analyze the composition, content and structure of TAGs in the study of the physical, chemical and nutritional properties of oils, fats and related products. This review described the research advancement based on MS for profiling of TAGs in oil, fat and their applications in food. The application of MS, including direct infusion strategies, and its combination with chromatography, gas chromatography-MS (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-MS (LC-MS), in the analysis of TAGs were reviewed. The advantages and disadvantages of these analytical methods with relevant applications for TAGs analysis in food were also described.

Rapid Analysis Procedures for Triglycerides and Fatty Acids as Pentyl and Phenethyl Esters for the Detection of Butter Adulteration Using Chromatographic Techniques

This paper presents the development of three methods for quality control, fraud detection, and authentication of butter fat and other oils/fats using chromatographic techniques, with one method for triglycerides and two methods for fatty acids (FAs). The procedure for the analysis of triglycerides requires only dissolution of the sample inn-hexane and gas chromatography (GC) analysis using a capillary column. The second method is based on the transesterification of triglycerides as pentyl esters in a single-step reaction using sodium pentanoate in pentanol. The reaction proceeds at room temperature and is similar to the potassium hydroxide-catalysed transesterification of triglycerides with methanol and even more similar to the sodium methoxide method and sodium butanoate method. The advantage of using pentyl esters includes reducing the volatility of short-chain FAs, and substantial recoveries were obtained compared with methyl ester analysis. The third method involves the transesterification of triglycerides in fat through reaction with 2-phenylethanol in a single step; 2-phenylethanol possesses a chromophore, and the phenethyl esters formed are analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection.