Preparation, evaluation and metabolites study in rats of novel amentoflavone-loaded TPGS/soluplus mixed nanomicelles

Delivery of Fenofibrate to Ocular Tissues using 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin-Based Micelles

Age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy are the main diseases that cause vision impairment. The standard treatment for this condition is the intravitreal injection of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents, which cause several side effects to the eye after injection. Topical administration would be a more effective method, but the ocular layers act as barriers to drug diffusion. In this research, we presented the preparation and characterization of poly(pseudo)rotaxanes (PPRs) containing 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (2-HPβCD), Pluronic® F127 (PF127) and Soluplus® to enhance the solubility of fenofibrate (FEB), a poorly water-soluble drug, for potential application in ocular drug delivery. The FEB-loaded micelles and PPRs were investigated using DLS, 1H NMR and XRD techniques, which demonstrated that FEB could be encapsulated into both micelles and PPRs with small particle sizes (7-67 nm). The inclusion complex between FEB and 2-HPβCD was observed, as evidenced by a high stability constant (K1:1) and the shift in proton positions (1H NMR) within the hydrophobic cavity of 2-HPβCD in the FEB-loaded PPR formulations. Moreover, 1H NMR demonstrated structural modifications involving the PF127/ Soluplus® copolymers and proton shifts at the exterior wall of 2-HPβCD in the FEB-loaded PPR formulations, supporting the interactions between the copolymers and 2-HPβCD. The XRD pattern of free FEB compound, indicating its crystalline structure, whereas the drug-loaded PPRs (PF127/Soluplus®/2-HPβCD) showed an amorphous phase with a single broadband without a sharp diffraction peak, suggesting the transformation of the FEB drug from the crystalline to the amorphous state. Subsequently, the solubility enhancement of FEB in the prepared formulations was evaluated and found that the addition of 2-HPβCD to the mixed PF127/Soluplus® micelles had a 910-fold increase in FEB solubility compared to the intrinsic solubility of the FEB (0.34 ± 0.0011 μg/mL), indicating a synergistic effect of 2-HPβCD in drug solubility enhancement. Ex vivo permeation across porcine eyes revealed that FEB-loaded PPRs helped FEB to cross the scleral tissue with FEB permeation levels varying from 0.27 to 4.25 μg/cm2. Mathematical modelling based on Fick's law was employed to explain the transportation of FEB-loaded micelles or PPRs across the scleral tissue and to calculate effective diffusivity (Deff). Thus, this study highlights the potential application of PPRs as an effective drug delivery system for eye disease treatments and the importance of mathematical modelling in understanding drug permeation mechanisms.

Ocular polymeric nanomicelles for the posterior eye segment in the management of retinoblastoma: formulation, optimization, in vitro and ex vivo evaluations

The existing study focuses on the development, optimization, and evaluation of sorafenib-loaded polymeric nanomicelles for posterior segment delivery in treating retinoblastoma. The formulation involved adjusting various process and product parameters to create effective drug-loaded polymeric nanomicelles. The particle size, PDI, and zeta potential of optimized formulation were found to be 65.52 ± 1.18 nm, 0.14 ± 0.01, and -3.26 ± 0.66 mV, respectively. The entrapment efficiency and drug release were estimated to be 98.84% ± 0.001 and 99.99% in 6 h, respectively. Additionally, the optimized formulation demonstrated acceptable outcomes for solid-state analysis, osmolality, pH, residual solvent, and morphological properties. After 8 h, the ex vivo transcleral permeation and scleral deposition were 629.05 ± 124.11 ng/cm2 and 4.10 ± 0.54 µg, respectively. Y-79 (human retinoblastoma) cell line study using standard drug, test drug, and optimized formulation revealed anticancer potential at all time points (6, 12, 18, and 24 h) with comparable IC50 values. Furthermore, the optimized formulation exhibited no toxicity on the ARPE-19 (human retinal pigmented epithelium) cell line over 24 h. The optimized formulation was non-irritating to the eye (HET-CAM) and remained stable for 6 months. Thus, drug delivery to the posterior eye segment for the treatment of retinoblastoma appears to be possible with the help of established technology.

Functionalization of polymeric nanomicelles and mixed nanomicelles for targeted retinal delivery in the management of retinoblastoma

The current research discusses polymer conjugation, formulation development, and evaluation of sorafenib-loaded polymeric nanomicelles of conjugated soluplus (solu-tin) and polymeric mixed nanomicelles of conjugated soluplus (solu-tin) with conjugated poloxamer 188 (polo-tin) for site-specific posterior segment delivery to the retina in managing retinoblastoma. Firstly, the soluplus and poloxamer 188 were conjugated with biotin by Fischer esterification reaction and evaluated by FTIR and 1H NMR for confirmation of covalent bond formation involving the carboxyl group of biotin and hydroxyl group of polymers. Secondly, the sorafenib-loaded solu-tin nanomicelles and mixed nanomicelles of solu-tin with polo-tin were formulated by the thin film hydration method. Thereafter, these nanomicelles were evaluated and displayed suitable outcomes for particle size (78.53 nm and 73.17 nm), PDI (0.089 and 0.074), zeta potential (-3.65 mV and -4.17 mv), entrapment efficiency (99.23 % and 99.83 %), in vitro drug release (4 h and 8 h), solid-state analysis, osmolality (290 mOsm/kg and 293 mOsm/kg), pH (7.4 and 7.4), TEM (spherical) and residual solvent analysis (287.90 ppm and 363.49 ppm). The ex vivo transcleral permeation at 8 h was found to be 548.45 ng/cm2 and 281.61 ng/cm2, respectively. Both the drug-loaded nanomicelles displayed a dose-dependent anticancer effect on Y-79 cells at all time points i.e. 6, 12, 18, and 24 h, and were non-toxic to normal retinal pigmented epithelial cell line (ARPE-19) when incubated for 24 h. Furthermore, the formulations were non-irritant (HET-CAM) and stable for 6 months. Hence, the developed technology is safe and efficacious for targeting the retina in managing retinoblastoma.

Cancer cell membrane-modified Soluplus® micelles for gemcitabine delivery to pancreatic cancer using a prodrug approach

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the most lethal malignancies worldwide and its incidence is increasing. Chemotherapy is often associated to limited efficacy, poor targeting and systemic toxicity. In this work, the hydrophilic gemcitabine (GEM), widely used in PC treatment alone or in combination, was conjugated with vitamin E succinate (VES) and encapsulated in Soluplus® micelles. This prodrug approach facilitated encapsulation of the anticancer drug into the self-assembled copolymer micelles. Soluplus®/VES-GEM micelles were optimized regarding the ratio of the components and the preparation process. The micelles were small-sized (<80 nm), monodisperse, and highly stable, efficiently retaining the conjugate drug and showing significant antiproliferative activity against BxPC3 cell line. To improve biofunctionalization and targeting properties of prepared Soluplus®/VES-GEM micelles, biomimetic modification with PC cell membrane was further attempted by co-extruding PC cell membrane (BxPC3) nanovesicles with Soluplus®/VES-GEM micelles. Several protocols were attempted to prepare the BxPC3-modified Soluplus®/VES-GEM micelles and the outcomes were analyzed in detail. Overall, the results pave the way to innovative PC-targeted nanotherapies by maximizing GEM encapsulation in hydrophobic compartments with high stability and affinity. The results also highlight the need of higher resolution techniques to characterize cell membrane coating of nanocarriers bearing highly hydrophilic shells.

The treatment of psoriasis via herbal formulation and nano-polyherbal formulation: A new approach

Psoriasis is a chronic condition that can strike at any age. This sickness is associated with inflammatory problems that impact all humans in the world. Psoriasis is more common in Scandinavians than in Asian and African populations due to a combination of factors such as age, gender, geographic location, ethnicity, genetic and environmental factors. Immune stimulation, genetic contribution, antimicrobial peptides, and other significant triggers such as medicines, immunizations, infections, trauma, stress, obesity, alcohol intake, smoking, air pollution, sun exposure, and particular disorders cause psoriasis. Numerous clinical research investigations are now underway, and therapeutic alternatives are available. However, these therapies only improve symptoms and do not accomplish a complete cure; they also have dangerous and undesirable side effects. Natural products have gained popularity recently due to their great effectiveness, safety, and low toxicity. Natural formulations of various nanocarriers like liposomes, lipospheres, nanogels, emulgel, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanosponge, nanofibers, niosomes, nanomiemgel, nanoemulsions, nanospheres, cubosomes, microneedles, nanomicelles, ethosomes, nanocrystals, and foams, have significantly contributed and encouraged advancement in psoriasis disease treatment. These phytochemical-loaded new nanoformulations address several issues associated with natural products in conventional dosage forms, such as instability, poor solubility, and limited bioavailability. This article reviews some of the intriguing phytochemicals, as well as their possible molecular target locations and mechanisms of action, which may assist in the development of more specific and selective antipsoriatic medicines. Exploring and understanding phytochemicals' functions will allow for more site-specific psoriasis treatment techniques. This review concluded the psoriasis disease with phytoconstituent loaded herbal or polyherbal nanocarriers and their mechanistic approach.

Borneol-Modified Schisandrin B Micelles Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier To Treat Alzheimer's Disease in Aged Mice

Objective: Schisandrin B (Sch B) is a bioactive dibenzocyclooctadiene derizative that is prevalent in the fruit of Schisandra chinensis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that Sch B has a neuroprotective action by reducing oxidative stress and effectively preventing inflammation. It follows that Sch B is a potential treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the drug's solubility, bioavailability, and lower permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) can all reduce its efficacy during the therapy process. Therefore, this study constructed borneol-modified schisandrin B micelles (Bor-Sch B-Ms), which increase brain targeting by accurately delivering medications to the brain, effectively improving bioavailability. High therapeutic efficacy has been achieved at the pathological site. Methods: Bor-Sch B-Ms were prepared using the thin film dispersion approach in this article. On the one hand, to observe the targeting effect of borneol, we constructed a blood-brain barrier (BBB) model in vitro and studied the ability of micelles to cross the BBB. On the other hand, the distribution of micelle drugs and their related pharmacological effects on neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neuronal damage were studied through in vivo administration in mice. Results: In vitro studies have demonstrated that the drug uptake of bEnd.3 cells was increased by the borneol alteration on the surface of the nano micelles, implying that Bor-Sch B-Ms can promote the therapeutic effect of N2a cells. This could result in more medicines entering the BBB. In addition, in vivo studies revealed that the distribution and circulation time of medications in the brain tissue were significantly higher than those in other groups, making it more suitable for the treatment of central nervous system diseases. Conclusion: As a novel nanodrug delivery system, borneol modified schisandrin B micelles have promising research prospects in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Unraveling Amentoflavone's Therapeutic Potential in Alzheimer's Disease: A Preclinical Assessment

Alzheimer's disease is one of the neurodegenerative diseases which causes cognition deficit. There are currently few medications available to treat Alzheimer's disease, even though researchers have devoted a great deal of time studying the condition and offering many benefits. Thus, only a few drugs are available for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Amentoflavone is a dietary component found in many plants and herbs that has several health advantages. Amentoflavone has demonstrated strong protective benefits against a range of brain illnesses in preclinical trials, most frequently in Alzheimer's disease. Amentoflavone, a biflavonoid, can be identified in a variety of herbs upon isolation. Considering the beneficial properties of this compound, this review emphasizes the pharmacological effects and botanical sources of amentoflavone, as well as the compound's benefits and possible applications in the treatment of Alzheimer's disorders.

Chemopreventive mechanisms of amentoflavone: recent trends and advancements

In parallel to the continuous rise of new cancer cases all over the world, the interest of scientific community in natural anticancer agents has steadily been increased. In the past decades, numerous phytochemicals have been shown to possess a strong anticancer potential in preclinical conditions. One of such interesting compounds, derived from different plants such as ginkgo, hinoki, and St. John`s wort, is amentoflavone. In this review article, a wide range of anticancer properties of this natural biflavone are described, revealing its ability to suppress the malignant growth and lead tumor cells to apoptotic death, besides impeding also angiogenic and metastatic processes. Therefore, amentoflavone can be considered a potential lead compound for the development of novel anticancer drug candidates, definitely deserving further in vivo studies and also initiation of clinical trials. It is expected that this plant biflavone might be important, either alone or in combination with the current standard chemotherapeutics, in providing some alleviation for the continuous rise of global cancer burden.

Advances in the Anti-Tumor Activity of Biflavonoids in Selaginella

Despite the many strategies employed to slow the spread of cancer, the development of new anti-tumor drugs and the minimization of side effects have been major research hotspots in the anti-tumor field. Natural drugs are a huge treasure trove of drug development, and they have been widely used in the clinic as anti-tumor drugs. Selaginella species in the family Selaginellaceae are widely distributed worldwide, and they have been well-documented in clinical practice for the prevention and treatment of cancer. Biflavonoids are the main active ingredients in Selaginella, and they have good biological and anti-tumor activities, which warrant extensive research. The promise of biflavonoids from Selaginella (SFB) in the field of cancer therapy is being realized thanks to new research that offers insights into the multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms and key signaling pathways. The pharmacological effects of SFB against various cancers in vitro and in vivo are reviewed in this review. In addition, the types and characteristics of biflavonoid structures are described in detail; we also provide a brief summary of the efforts to develop drug delivery systems or combinations to enhance the bioavailability of SFB monomers. In conclusion, SFB species have great potential to be developed as adjuvant or even primary therapeutic agents for cancer, with promising applications.

Isoginkgetin, a potential CDK6 inhibitor, suppresses SLC2A1/GLUT1 enhancer activity to induce AMPK-ULK1-mediated cytotoxic autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma

Isoginkgetin (ISO), a natural biflavonoid, exhibited cytotoxic activity against several types of cancer cells. However, its effects on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells and mechanism remain unclear. Here, we revealed that ISO effectively inhibited HCC cell proliferation and migration in vitro. LC3-II expression and autophagosomes were increased under ISO treatment. In addition, ISO-induced cell death was attenuated by treatment with chloroquine or knockdown of autophagy-related genes (ATG5 or ULK1). ISO significantly suppressed SLC2A1/GLUT1 (solute carrier family 2 member 1) expression and glucose uptake, leading to activation of the AMPK-ULK1 axis in HepG2 cells. Overexpression of SLC2A1/GLUT1 abrogated ISO-induced autophagy. Combining molecular docking with thermal shift analysis, we confirmed that ISO directly bound to the N terminus of CDK6 (cyclin-dependent kinase 6) and promoted its degradation. Overexpression of CDK6 abrogated ISO-induced inhibition of SLC2A1/GLUT1 transcription and induction of autophagy. Furthermore, ISO treatment significantly decreased the H3K27ac, H4K8ac and H3K4me1 levels on the SLC2A1/GLUT1 enhancer in HepG2 cells. Finally, ISO suppressed the hepatocarcinogenesis in the HepG2 xenograft mice and the diethylnitrosamine+carbon tetrachloride (DEN+CCl4)-induced primary HCC mice and we confirmed SLC2A1/GLUT1 and CDK6 as promising oncogenes in HCC by analysis of TCGA data and human HCC tissues. Our results provide a new molecular mechanism by which ISO treatment or CDK6 deletion promotes autophagy; that is, ISO targeting the N terminus of CDK6 for degradation inhibits the expression of SLC2A1/GLUT1 by decreasing the enhancer activity of SLC2A1/GLUT1, resulting in decreased glucose levels and inducing the AMPK-ULK1 pathway.

Compounds from diverse natural origin against triple-negative breast cancer: A comprehensive review

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is caused due to the lack of estrogen receptors (ER), progesterone receptors (PR), and human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) expression. Triple-negative breast cancer is the most aggressive heterogeneous disease that is capable of producing different clones and mutations. Tumorigenesis in TNBC is caused due to the mutation or overexpression of tumor suppressor genes. It is also associated with mutations in the BRCA gene which is linked to hereditary breast cancer. In addition, PARP proteins and checkpoint proteins also play a crucial function in causing TNBC. Many cell signaling pathways are dysregulated in TNBC. Even though chemotherapy and immunotherapy are good options for TNBC treatment, the response rates are still low in general. Many phytochemicals that are derived from natural compounds have shown very good inhibitions for TNBC. Natural compounds have the great advantage of being less toxic, having lesser side effects, and being easily available. The secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, terpenoids, steroids, and flavonoids in natural products make them promising inhibitors of TNBC. Their compositions also offer vital insights into inhibitory action, which could lead to new cancer-fighting strategies. This review can help in understanding how naturally occurring substances and medicinal herbs decrease specific tumors and pave the way for the development of novel and extremely efficient antitumor therapies.

Metagenomics Approach to the Intestinal Microbiome Structure and Abundance in High-Fat-Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemic Rat Fed with (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Nanoparticles

The effects of nanoparticles (NPs) on microbiota homeostasis and their physiological relevance are still unclear. Herein, we compared the modulation and consequent pharmacological effects of oral administration of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)-loaded β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) NPs (EGCG@β-CD NPs) and EGCG on gut microbiota. EGCG@β-CD NPs were prepared using self-assembly and their influence on the intestinal microbiome structure was analyzed using a metagenomics approach. The “Encapsulation efficiency (EE), particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential” of EGCG@β-CD NPs were recorded as 98.27 ± 0.36%, 124.6 nm, 0.313 and –24.3 mV, respectively. Surface morphology of EGCG@β-CD NPs was observed as spherical. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and molecular docking studies confirmed that EGCG could be well encapsulated in β-CD and formed as EGCG@β-CD NPs. After being continuously administered EGCG@β-CD NPs for 8 weeks, the serum cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and liver malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the rats were significantly decreased, while the levels of catalase (CAT) and apolipoprotein-A1 (apo-A1) in the liver increased significantly in the hyperlipidemia model of rats, when compared to the high-fat-diet group. Furthermore, metagenomic analysis revealed that the ratio of Verrucomicrobia/Bacteroidetes was altered and Bacteroidetes decreased in the high-fat diet +200 mg/kg·bw EGCG@β-CD NPs group, while the abundance of Verrucomicrobia was significantly increased, especially Akkermansia muciniphila in rat feces. EGCG@β-CD NPs could be a promising EGCG delivery strategy to modulate the gut microbiota, enhancing its employment in the prevention of hyperlipidemia.

Amentoflavone-loaded nanoparticles enhanced chemotherapy efficacy by inhibition of AKR1B10

Therapeutic nanoparticles can be combined with different anticancer drugs to achieve a synergistic therapy and avoid the limitations of traditional medicine and thus have clinical prospects for cancer. Herein, an effective nanoplatform was developed for self-assembling AMF@DOX-Fe³⁺-PEG nanoparticles (ADPF NPs) via the coordination of ferric ions (Fe³⁺), amentoflavone (AMF), doxorubicin (DOX), and PEG-polyphenol. The ADPF NPs possessed high drug loading efficiency, good stability and dispersion in water, prolonged blood circulation, and pH-dependent release, which leading to targeted drug transport and enhanced drug accumulation in the tumor. The AMF from the ADPF NPs could inhibit the expression of the Aldo-keto reductase family 1B10 (AKR1B10) and nuclear factor-kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65), which reduced the cardiotoxicity induced by DOX and enhanced the chemotherapy efficacy. This study established a new strategy of combining drug therapy with a nanoplatform. This new strategy has a wide application prospect in clinical tumor therapy.

Soluplus® polymeric nanomicelles improve solubility of BCS-class II drugs

The issue of poor aqueous solubility is often a great hitch in the development of liquid dosage forms for those drugs that the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) includes in classes II and IV. Among the possible technological solutions, inclusion of the drug molecule within polymeric micelles, and particularly nanomicelles, has been proposed in the last years as a valid strategy. Our attention has been recently attracted by Soluplus^®, an amphiphilic polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol graft copolymer able to form small and stable nanomicelles. The aim of this study was to characterize Soluplus^® nanomicelles to enhance the apparent solubility of three model APIs, categorized in BCS class II: ibuprofen (IBU), idebenone (IDE), and miconazole (MIC). Drug-loaded Soluplus^® micelles with a mean size around 60–70 nm were prepared by two methods (direct dissolution or film hydration method). The prepared nanosystems were characterized in terms of mean particle size and Zeta potential, physical stability, drug solubility, and in vitro drug release. The solubility of the tested APIs was shown to increase linearly with the concentration of graft copolymer. Soluplus^® can be easily submitted to membrane filtration (0.2 µm PES or PTFE membranes), showing the potential to be sterilized by this method. Freeze-drying enabled to obtain powder materials that, upon reconstitution with water, maintained the initial micelle size. Finally, viscosity studies indicated that these nanomicelles have potential applications where a bioadhesive material is advantageous, such as in topical ocular administration.

Identification of metabolites of Ginkgolide B in vivo and in vitro using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Ginkgolide B is a dietary diterpene with multiple pharmacological activities. However, current research on ginkgolide B is not comprehensive. The current study analyzed the metabolic profile of ginkgolide B in vivo and in vitro using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry . To detect and identify the different metabolites in ginkgolide B, a novel data processing method was used as an assistant tool. A total of 53 different metabolites of ginkgolide B (38 phase I metabolites and 15 phase II metabolites) were detected relative to blank samples. The biotransformation route of ginkgolide B was identified as oxidation, dehydroxylation, hydrogenation, decarbonylation, demethylation, sulfate conjugation, glucose conjugation, methylation and acetylation. The current study demonstrated a method for rapidly detecting and identifying metabolites and provided useful information to further characterize the pharmacology and mechanism of ginkgolide B. A method for the analysis of other diterpene metabolic components in vivo and in vitro was also established. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Sorafenib-Loaded PLGA-TPGS Nanosystems Enhance Hepatocellular Carcinoma Therapy Through Reversing P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Multidrug Resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a key determinant for hepatocellular carcinoma chemotherapy failure. P-glycoprotein is one of the main causes of MDR by causing drug efflux in tumor cells. In order to solve this thorny problem, we prepared a sorafenib-loaded polylactic acid-glycolic acid (PLGA) - D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) nanoparticles (SPTNs). SPTNs were successfully synthesized through an ultrasonic emulsion solvent evaporation method with a favourable encapsulation efficiency of 90.35%. SPTNs were almost spherical in shape with uniform particle size (215.70 ± 0.36 nm), narrow polydispersity index (0.27 ± 0.02) and negative surface charge (-26.01 ± 0.65 mV). In the cellular uptake assay, the intracellular coumarin-6 (C6) fluorescence of TPGS component-based PLGA nanoparticles (C6-PTNs) was 1.63-fold higher relative to that of PVA component-based PLGA nanoparticles (C6-PVNs). The half-maximal inhibitory concentration and apoptosis ratio of SPTNs against HepG2/MDR cells were 3.90 μM and 75.62%, respectively, which were notably higher than free SF and sorafenib-PLGA-PVA nanoparticles (SPVNs). The anti-drug efflux activities of SPTNs were assessed by the intracellular trafficking assay using verapamil as a P-gp inhibitor. SPTNs could effectively inhibit the drug efflux in tumor cells detected by flow cytometry, and suppressed relative MDR1 gene as well as P-glycoprotein expression in tumor cells. Attributed to the MDR reversion effect of SPTNs, the in vivo antitumor efficacy experiment showed that SPTNs significantly inhibited the tumor growth of HepG2/MDR xenograft-bearing nude mice, and obviously reduced the toxicity against liver and kidney compared with SF treatment. In summary, SPTNs, as highly efficient and safe antitumor nano delivery systems, showed promising potential for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy through reversing P-glycoprotein-mediated MDR. Graphical Abstract.

Fast In Vitro Release and In Vivo Absorption of an Anti-Schizophrenic Drug Paliperidone from Its Soluplus®/TPGS Mixed Micelles

The purpose of this study was to develop a drug delivery system for paliperidone (PPD) in order to provide a more effective therapeutic strategy for patients with acute schizophrenia. PPD-loaded Soluplus®/TPGS mixed micelles (PPD-S/T-MM) were prepared using the thin-film hydration method. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of blank S/T-MM was 4.77 × 10-2 mg/mL. PPD presented much higher solubility in PPD-S/T-MM formulation than that in pure water. The particle size of blank or drug loaded S/T-MM was around 60 nm. The polydispersity index (PDI) was less than 0.1. PPD-S/T-MM presented a nearly spherical shape under transmission electron microscopy. The encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of PPD-S/T-MM was higher than 94%. Based on the analysis of XRD and DSC, it was proved that PPD was incorporated in the core of the mixed micelles as amorphous dispersion or solid solution. PPD-S/T-MM were stable when they were undergoing dilution with water and the change of environmental pH. Although PPD-S/T-MM showed lower rates to release PPD than those from PPD raw material in acidic solution, they provided faster release rates in neutral conditions than those from PPD raw material who only showed modest dissolution in the same neutral condition. This proves that PPD-S/T-MM can release PPD in a more controlled manner. After oral administration of PPD-S/T-MM (dose of PPD, 6 mg/kg) in rats, the plasma concentration of PPD increased rapidly: Tmax was 0.83 ± 0.29 h, and Cmax was 844.33 ± 93.73 ng/mL. Oral administration of PPD suspension resulted in longer Tmax and lower Cmax. The relative oral bioavailability was about 158% for PPD-S/T-MM over PPD suspension. These findings confirm that PPD-S/T-MM can provide faster release in neutral conditions and better oral absorption in rats than those from PPD raw material, which should potentially benefit patients with acute schizophrenia.

Hot Melt Extrusion-Triggered Amorphization as a Continuous Process for Inducing Extended Supersaturable Drug Immediate-Release from saSMSDs Systems

Hot melt extrusion (HME), a continuous manufacturing process for generating supersaturating amorphous self-micellizing solid dispersion systems (saSMSDs), holds promise for achieving amorphization of many pharmaceutical formulations. For saSMSDs generation, HME-triggered continuous processes offer advantages over traditional non-continuous processes such as fusion/quench cooling (FQC) and co-precipitation (CP). Here we employed HME, FQC, and CP to generate saSMSDs containing the water-insoluble BCS II drug nitrendipine (NIT) and self-micellizing polymer Soluplus^®. Scanning electron microscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, and differential scanning calorimetry results revealed that saSMSDs formed when NIT–Soluplus^® mixtures were subjected to the abovementioned amorphization methods. All saSMSDs outperformed crystalline NIT preparations and physical mixtures in achieving extended supersaturable immediate release states with superior solubility, “spring-parachute” process characteristics, and dissolution behaviors. Notably, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopic results obtained for saSMSDs detected hydrogen bonding interactions between the drug and the carrier. Ultimately, our results revealed the advantages of HME-triggered amorphization as a continuous process for significantly improving drug dissolution, increasing solubility, and maintaining supersaturation as compared to traditional amorphization-based techniques.

Insights Into Amentoflavone: A Natural Multifunctional Biflavonoid

Amentoflavone is an active phenolic compound isolated from Selaginella tamariscina over 40 years. Amentoflavone has been extensively recorded as a molecule which displays multifunctional biological activities. Especially, amentoflavone involves in anti-cancer activity by mediating various signaling pathways such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), and emerges anti-SARS-CoV-2 effect via binding towards the main protease (Mpro/3CLpro), spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, amentoflavone is considered to be a promising therapeutic agent for clinical research. Considering the multifunction of amentoflavone, the current review comprehensively discuss the chemistry, the progress in its diverse biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, anti-microorganism, metabolism regulation, neuroprotection, radioprotection, musculoskeletal protection and antidepressant, specially the fascinating role against various types of cancers. In addition, the bioavailability and drug delivery of amentoflavone, the molecular mechanisms underlying the activities of amentoflavone, the molecular docking simulation of amentoflavone through in silico approach and anti-SARS-CoV-2 effect of amentoflavone are discussed.

Assessment of Amentoflavone Loaded Sub-Micron Particle Preparation using Supercritical Antisolvent for its Antitumor Activity

Introduction:

The amentoflavone (AMF) loaded polymeric sub-micron particles were prepared using supercritical antisolvent (SAS) technology with the aim of improving the anticancer activity of AMF.

Materials and Methods:

Zein and phospholipid mixtures composed of Hydrogenated Phosphatidylcholine (HPC) and egg lecithin (EPC) were used as carrier materials and, the effects of carrier composition on the product morphology and drug release behavior were investigated. When the mass ratio of Zein/HPC/ EPC was 7/2/1, the AMF loaded particles were spherical shape and sub-micron sized around 400 nm, with a drug load of 4.3±0.3 w% and entrapment efficacy of 87.8±1.8%. The in vitro drug release assay showed that adding EPC in the wall materials could improve the dispersion stability of the released AMF in an aqueous medium, and the introduction of HPC could accelerate the drug release speed.

Results:

MTT assay demonstrated that AMF-loaded micron particles have an improved inhibitory effect on A375 cells, whose IC50 was 37.39μg/ml, compared with that of free AMF(130.2μg/ml).

Conclusion:

It proved that the AMF loaded sub-micron particles prepared by SAS were a prospective strategy to improve the antitumor activity of AMF, and possibly promote the clinical use of AMF preparations.

The traditional and modern uses of Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring, in medicine and cosmetic: Applications and bioactive ingredients

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Extracts of the plant Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring (spike moss) are used for a long time in Asia, for the treatment of multiple diseases and conditions. Aqueous and alcoholic leave extracts are used by local communities. In China, the plant (Juan bai) is listed on the Pharmacopoeia. In South Korea, the use of this plant (Kwon Baek) is mentioned in the book Dongui-Bogam (Heo Jun 1613), at the origin of the Hyungsang medicine. S. tamariscina is traditionally used in Vietnam (mong lung rong), Thailand (dok hin), Philippines (pakong-tulog) and other Asian countries.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide an analysis of the multiple traditional and current uses of S. tamariscina extracts (STE) in the field of medicine and cosmetic. The review is also intended at identifying the main natural products at the origin of the many pharmacological properties reported with these extracts (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiallergic, anticancer effects).

METHODS

Extensive database retrieval, such as SciFinder and PubMed, was performed by using keywords like " Selaginella tamariscina", "spike moss", "Selaginellaceae ". Relevant textbooks, patents, reviews, and digital documents were consulted to collate all available scientific literature and to provide a complete science-based survey of the topic.

RESULTS

Different solvents and methods are used to prepare STE. The process can largely modify the natural product content and properties of the extracts. STE display a range of pharmacological effects, useful to treat metabolic disorders, several inflammatory diseases and various cancers. A specific carbonized extract (S. tamariscina carbonisatus) has shown hemostatic effects, whereas standard STE can promote blood circulation. Many patented STE-containing cosmetic preparations are reviewed here. Several biflavonoids (chiefly amentoflavone) and phenolic compounds (selaginellin derivatives) are primarily responsible for the observed pharmacological properties. Potent inhibitors of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 B (PTP1B), phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4), and repressor of pro-inflammatory cytokines expression have been identified from STE.

CONCLUSION

The traditional use of STE supports the research performed with this plant. There are robust experimental data, based on in vitro and in vivo models, documenting the use of STE to treat type 2 diabetes, several inflammatory diseases, and some cancers (in combination with standard chemotherapy). Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) is a prime reservoir for amentoflavone, and many other bioactive natural products. The interest of the plant in medicine and cosmetic is amply justified.

An overview on therapeutic and medicinal potential of poly-hydroxy flavone viz. Heptamethoxyflavone, Kaempferitrin, Vitexin and Amentoflavone for management of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases: a critical analysis on mechanistic insight

Neurodegenerative disorders occur when nerve cells in the brain or peripheral nervous system partial or complete fail in their functions and sometimes even die due to some injuries or aging. Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and Parkinson's Disease (PD), have been majorly resulted due to degeneration of neurons and neuroinflammation progressively. There are many similarities that correlates both AD and PD on a cellular and sub-cellular level. Therefore, a hope for therapeutic advancement for simultaneous upgradation in both the diseases are directly depending on the discovery of common mechanism at molecular and cellular level. Recent and past evidences from scientific literature supporting the efficacy of plants flavonoids in treatment and protection of both AD and PD. Further, dietary flavones, specially Heptamethoxyflavone, Kaempferitrin, Vitexin and Amentoflavone gains recently much more attention for producing many health beneficiary effects including neuroprotection. Despite of these evidence a detailed updated overview of neuroprotective effects against both AD and PD by Heptamethoxyflavone, Kaempferitrin, Vitexin and Amentoflavone are still missing. In this context several published studies were assessed by using various online electronic search engines/databases to meet the objective from 1981 to 2021 (Approx. 224). Therefore, present review was designed to deliver the detailed description on these flavones including therapeutic benefits in AD, PD and other CNS complications with critical analysis on underlying mechanisms.

Amentoflavone isolated from Selaginella sellowii Hieron induces mitochondrial dysfunction in Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes

Leishmaniasis chemotherapy is a bottleneck in disease treatment. Although available, chemotherapy is limited, toxic, painful, and does not lead to parasite clearance, with parasite resistance also being reported. Therefore, new therapeutic options are being investigated, such as plant-derived anti-parasitic compounds. Amentoflavone is the most common biflavonoid in the Selaginella genus, and its antileishmanial activity has already been described on Leishmania amazonensis intracellular amastigotes but its direct action on the parasite is controversial. In this work we demonstrate that amentoflavone is active on L. amazonensis promastigotes (IC₅₀ = 28.5 ± 2.0 μM) and amastigotes. Transmission electron microscopy of amentoflavone-treated promastigotes showed myelin-like figures, autophagosomes as well as enlarged mitochondria. Treated parasites also presented multiple lipid droplets and altered basal body organization. Similarly, intracellular amastigotes presented swollen mitochondria, membrane fragments in the lumen of the flagellar pocket as well as autophagic vacuoles. Flow cytometric analysis after TMRE staining showed that amentoflavone strongly decreased mitochondrial membrane potential. In silico analysis shows that amentoflavone physic-chemical, drug-likeness and bioavailability characteristics suggest it might be suitable for oral administration. We concluded that amentoflavone presents a direct effect on L. amazonensis parasites, causing mitochondrial dysfunction and parasite killing. Therefore, all results point for the potential of amentoflavone as a promising candidate for conducting advanced studies for the development of drugs against leishmaniasis.

Extensive metabolism of flavonoids relevant to their potential efficacy on Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, the incidence of which is climbing with ever-growing aged population, but no cure is hitherto available. The epidemiological studies unveiled that chronic intake of flavonoids was negatively associated with AD risk. Flavonoids, a family of natural polyphenols widely distributed in human daily diets, were readily conjugated by phase II drug metabolizing enzymes after absorption in vivo, and glucuronidation could occur in 1 min following intravenous administration. Recently, as many as 191 metabolites were obtained after intragastric administration of a single flavonoid, indicating that other bioactive metabolites, besides conjugates, might be formed and account for the contradiction between efficacy of flavonoids in human or animal models and low systematic exposure of flavonoid glycosides or aglycones. In this review, metabolism of complete 68 flavonoid monomers potential for AD treatment, grouped in flavonoid O-glycosides, flavonoid aglycones, flavonoid C-glycosides, flavonoid dimers, flavonolignans and prenylated flavonoids according to their common structural elements, respectively, has been systematically retrospected, summarized and discussed, including their unequivocally identified metabolites, metabolic interconversions, metabolic locations, metabolic sites (regio- or stereo-selectivity), primarily involved metabolic enzymes or intestinal bacteria, and interspecies correlations or differences in metabolism, and their bioactive metabolites and the underlying mechanism to reverse AD pathology were also reviewed, providing whole perspective about advances on extensive metabolism of diverse potent flavonoids in vivo and in vitro up to date and aiming at elucidation of mechanism of actions of flavonoids on AD or other central nervous system (CNS) disorders.

Preparation and in vitro/vivo evaluation of folate-conjugated pluronic F87-PLGA/TPGS mixed nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery

AIM

Folate-conjugated Pluronic F87-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) block copolymer (FA-F87-PLGA) was synthesized to encapsulate anticancer drug Paclitaxel (PTX) for targeted drug delivery. To further improve the curative effect, D-α-tocopheryl poly(ethylene glycol) 1000 succinate (TPGS or Vitamin E TPGS) was added to form FA-F87-PLGA/TPGS mixed NPs.

METHODS

FA-F87-PLGA was synthesized by the ring-opening polymerization and the structure was characterized. PTX-loaded nanoparticles were prepared with the nanoprecipitation method. The physicochemical characteristics were studied to determine the appropriate dose ratio of the FA-F87-PLGA to TPGS. The cytotoxicity against Ovarian Cancer Cells (OVCAR-3) was determined by MTT assay. The Area-Under-the Curve (AUC) and half-life were measured in the vivo pharmacokinetic studies.

RESULTS

Based on the optimization of particle size and embedding rate of PTX-loaded mixed NPs, the appropriate dosage ratio of FA-F87-PLGA to TPGS was finally determined to be 5:3. According to in vitro release studies, the cumulative release rate of PTX-loaded FA-F87-PLGA/TPGS mixed NPs was 92.04%, which was higher than that of nanoparticles without TPGS. The cytotoxicity studies showed that the IC50 value of PTX-loaded FA-F87-PLGA/TPGS decreased by 75.4 times and 19.7 times after 72 h treatment compared with free PTX injections and PTX-loaded FA-F87-PLGA NPs, respectively. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies indicated that FA-F87-PLGA/TPGS mixed NPs had a longer drug metabolism time and a larger Area-Under-the-Curve (AUC) compared with free PTX injections.

CONCLUSION

FA-F87-PLGA/TPGS mixed NPs are potential candidates for targeted drug delivery systems.

Novel nanotech antioxidant cocktail prevents medical diagnostic procedures ionizing radiation effects

Ionizing radiation (IR) exposure results in oxidative damage causing cytotoxic and genotoxic effects. Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are considered the most significant DNA lesions induced by ionizing radiation. The present study evaluates the radio protective effect of a novel antioxidant cocktail through quantification of DSB in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) in vivo. The study included 16 consecutive patients who were divided into 2 groups, 6 patients received the novel antioxidant cocktail and 10 control patients. Blood samples were drawn from the patients undergoing bone scan, before the injection of the ^99mTc MDP tracer and 2 h after the injection. Quantification of the IR damage was done by Immunofluorescence analysis of the phosphorylated histone, γ-H2AX, used to monitor DSB induction and repair in PBL. The radiation effect of the control group was measured by 2 variables, the average DBSs foci per nucleus and the percent of the DSB bearing cells in PBL. The findings showed a significant increase in the DSBs after isotope injection with an average increment of 0.29 ± 0.13 of foci/nucleus and 17.07% ± 7.68 more DSB bearing cells (p < 0.05). The cocktail treated group showed a lower difference average of − 2.79% ± 6.13 DSB bearing cells. A paired t-test revealed a significant difference between the groups (p < 0.005) confirming the cocktail’s protective effect. The novel anti-oxidant treatment decreases the oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and can be considered as a preventative treatment before radiation exposure.

Bioactivity of natural biflavonoids in metabolism-related disease and cancer therapies

Natural biflavonoids, such as amentoflavone, bilobetin, ginkgetin, isoginkgetin, taiwaniaflavone, morelloflavone, delicaflavone, hinokiflavone, and other derivatives (~ 40 biflavonoids), are isolated from Selaginella sp., Ginkgo biloba, Garcinia sp., and several other species of plants. They are able to exert therapeutic benefits by regulating several proteins/enzymes (PPAR-γ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α [C/EBPα], STAT5, pancreatic lipase, PTP1B, fatty acid synthase, α-glucosidase [AG]) and insulin signaling pathways (via PI3K-AKT), which are linked to metabolism, cell growth, and cell survival mechanisms. Deregulated insulin signaling can cause complications of obesity and diabetes, which can lead to cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and dementia; therefore, the therapeutic benefits of these biflavones in these areas are highlighted. Since biflavonoids have shown potential to regulate metabolism, growth- and survival-related protein/enzymes, their relation to tumor growth and metastasis of cancer associated with angiogenesis are highlighted. The translational role of biflavones in cancer with respect to the inhibition of metabolism-related processes/pathways, enzymes, or proteins, such as STAT3/SHP-1/PTEN, kinesins, tissue kallikreins, aromatase, estrogen, protein modifiers, antioxidant, autophagy, and apoptosis induction mechanisms, are discussed. Finally, considering their observed bioactivity potential, oral bioavailability studies of biflavones and related clinical trials are outlined.

Amentoflavone as an Ally in the Treatment of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: Analysis of Its Antioxidant/Prooxidant Mechanisms

Treatment of leishmaniasis is a challenging subject. Although available, chemotherapy is limited, presenting toxicity and adverse effects. New drugs with antileishmanial activity are being investigated, such as antiparasitic compounds derived from plants. In this work, we investigated the antileishmanial activity of the biflavonoid amentoflavone on the protozoan Leishmania amazonensis. Although the antileishmanial activity of amentoflavone has already been reported in vitro, the mechanisms involved in the parasite death, as well as its action in vivo, remain unknown. Amentoflavone demonstrated activity on intracellular amastigotes in macrophages obtained from BALB/c mice (IC₅₀ 2.3 ± 0.93 μM). No cytotoxicity was observed and the selectivity index was estimated as greater than 10. Using BALB/c mice infected with L. amazonensis we verified the effect of an intralesional treatment with amentoflavone (0.05 mg/kg/dose, in a total of 5 doses every 4 days). Parasite quantification demonstrated that amentoflavone reduced the parasite load in treated footpads (46.3% reduction by limiting dilution assay and 56.5% reduction by Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction). Amentoflavone decreased the nitric oxide production in peritoneal macrophages obtained from treated animals. The treatment also increased the expression of ferritin and decreased iNOS expression at the site of infection. Furthemore, it increased the production of ROS in peritoneal macrophages infected in vitro. The increase of ROS in vitro, associated with the reduction of NO and iNOS expression in vivo, points to the antioxidant/prooxidant potential of amentoflavone, which may play an important role in the balance between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory patterns at the infection site. Taken together these results suggest that amentoflavone has the potential to be used in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis, working as an ally in the control and development of the lesion.

Selective antitumor activity of drug-free TPGS nanomicelles with ROS-induced mitochondrial cell death

D-a-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) as a FDA-approved safe adjuvant has shown an excellent application in the targeting delivery of antitumor drugs and overcoming multidrug resistance. Beside, TPGS can result in apoptogenic activity toward many tumor types because it can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, TPGS can serve as an antineoplastic agent. However, the current research on the selective antitumor activity of TPGS is ignored. To reveal the issue, herein we develop a mitochondria-targeting drug-free TPGS nanomicelles with the hydrodynamic diameter of about 100 nm and outstanding serum stability by weak interaction-driven self-assembly of the amphiphilic TPGS polymer. Moreover, such drug-free TPGS nanomicelles intravenously injected into tumor-bearing mice exhibit long blood circulation time, superior tumor enrichment, and inhibit the tumor growth via inducing excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation within tumor cells. Further in vitro and in vivo researches jointly demonstrate that drug-free TPGS nanomicelles have more significant antitumor effect on HeLa cells compared with that of other tumor cells. On the contrary, drug-free TPGS nanomicelles display the low toxicity toward normal cells and tissues. Taken together, these new findings confirm that TPGS drug-free nanomicelles represent simple, multifunctional, safe, and efficient antineoplastic agents, which can be expected to bring new light on the development of drug-free polymers for tumor therapy.

Systematic Strategy for Metabolites of Amentoflavone In Vivo and In Vitro Based on UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS Analysis

Amentoflavone, a biflavonoid occurring in many edible supplements, possesses some bioactivities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammation, antitumor, and neuroprotective activities. In the present study, an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) method, combined with a three-step analytical strategy, was employed to identify metabolites in vivo (rat plasma, bile, urine, and feces) and in vitro (rat liver microsomes and rat intestine microsomes). A total of 39 metabolites in rats and nine metabolites in rat microsomes were elucidated by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis, and the chemical structure of some isomers was further assigned by calculated Clog P values. Oxidation, internal hydrolysis, hydrogenation, methylation, sulfation, glucuronidation, glucosylation, O-aminomethylation, and degradation were the major metabolic pathways of amentoflavone. Noteworthy, O-aminomethylation and glucosylation could be considered as unique metabolic pathways of amentoflavone. This was the first report on metabolite identification of amentoflavone in vivo and in vitro, and the metabolic findings offer novel and valuable evidence for an in-depth understanding of the safety and efficacy of amentoflavone.

A Review of Natural Therapies Potentially Relevant in Triple Negative Breast Cancer Aimed at Targeting Cancer Cell Vulnerabilities

We reviewed the research into the mechanisms of growth of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) based on laboratory pre-clinical studies that have shaped understanding of the disease over the past decade. In response to these findings, we propose an approach to potentially prevent cancer metabolic adaptation and recurrence. This paper collates pre-clinical results, first to determine the tumor’s mechanisms of growth and then to source natural substances that could potentially suppress those mechanisms. The results from in vivo and in vitro studies of TNBC were combined first to select 10 primary mechanisms (Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, Hedgehog, MAPK, MTAP, NF-κ B, Notch, P13K, STAT3, and Wnt signaling pathways plus p53 and POL2A gene expression) that promote TNBC growth, and second to propose a treatment array of 21 natural compounds that suppress laboratory models of TNBC via these mechanisms. We included BRCA mutations in the review process, but only pathways with the most preclinical studies utilizing natural products were included. Then we outlined potential biomarkers to assess the changes in the micro-environment and monitor biochemical pathway suppression. This suppression-centric aim targets these mechanisms of growth with the goal of potentially halting tumor growth and preventing cancer cell metabolic adaptation. We chose TNBC to demonstrate this 5-step strategy of supplementary therapy, which may be replicated for other tumor types.

Dermal Targeting Delivery of Terbinafine Hydrochloride Using Novel Multi-Ethosomes: A New Approach to Fungal Infection Treatment

This research aimed to develop and evaluate a novel multi-ethosome (ME) system for the dermal delivery of terbinafine hydrochloride (TH) as a new approach to fungal infection treatment. TH-loaded MEs were successfully prepared using cinnamaldehyde as a penetration enhancer. Mean diameter of ME was found as ~100 nm with monodispersed size distribution. Drug entrapment efficiency reached up to 86% ± 1.4%. MEs exhibited excellent colloid stability and no drug leakage after 2 months of storage. In contrast to a commercial Lamisil® cream, ME significantly improved the targeting efficiency by increasing the fluidity of stratum corneum layer, revealed by attenuated total reflection Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The dermal targeting effect was visualized using confocal microscopy. Moreover, skin irritation and allergy tests showed that ME was not irritating to the skin. The improved antifungal activity of ME was proved in vitro on Candida albicans strains by minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay. This study paves the way towards design of MEs for dermal fungal infection treatment.