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Al Jowf GI, Ahmed ZT, Reijnders RA, de Nijs L, Eijssen LMT. To Predict, Prevent, and Manage Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A Review of Pathophysiology, Treatment, and Biomarkers. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065238. [PMID: 36982313 PMCID: PMC10049301 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can become a chronic and severely disabling condition resulting in a reduced quality of life and increased economic burden. The disorder is directly related to exposure to a traumatic event, e.g., a real or threatened injury, death, or sexual assault. Extensive research has been done on the neurobiological alterations underlying the disorder and its related phenotypes, revealing brain circuit disruption, neurotransmitter dysregulation, and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction. Psychotherapy remains the first-line treatment option for PTSD given its good efficacy, although pharmacotherapy can also be used as a stand-alone or in combination with psychotherapy. In order to reduce the prevalence and burden of the disorder, multilevel models of prevention have been developed to detect the disorder as early as possible and to reduce morbidity in those with established diseases. Despite the clinical grounds of diagnosis, attention is increasing to the discovery of reliable biomarkers that can predict susceptibility, aid diagnosis, or monitor treatment. Several potential biomarkers have been linked with pathophysiological changes related to PTSD, encouraging further research to identify actionable targets. This review highlights the current literature regarding the pathophysiology, disease development models, treatment modalities, and preventive models from a public health perspective, and discusses the current state of biomarker research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazi I. Al Jowf
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
- European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (G.I.A.J.); (L.M.T.E.)
| | - Ziyad T. Ahmed
- College of Medicine, Sulaiman Al Rajhi University, Al-Bukairyah 52726, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rick A. Reijnders
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Laurence de Nijs
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Lars M. T. Eijssen
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Bioinformatics—BiGCaT, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (G.I.A.J.); (L.M.T.E.)
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Involvement of Neuropeptide Galanin Receptors 2 and 3 in Learning, Memory and Anxiety in Aging Mice. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26071978. [PMID: 33915732 PMCID: PMC8037218 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The neuropeptide galanin (GAL), which is expressed in limbic brain structures, has a strong impact on the regulation of mood and behavior. GAL exerts its effects via three G protein-coupled receptors (GAL1-3-R). Little is known about the effects of aging and loss of GAL-Rs on hippocampal-mediated processes connected to neurogenesis, such as learning, memory recall and anxiety, and cell proliferation and survival in the dorsal dentate gyrus (dDG) in mice. Our results demonstrate that loss of GAL3-R, but not GAL2-R, slowed learning and induced anxiety in older (12-14-month-old) mice. Lack of GAL2-R increased cell survival (BrdU incorporation) in the dDG of young mice. However, normal neurogenesis was observed in vitro using neural stem and precursor cells obtained from GAL2-R and GAL3-R knockouts upon GAL treatment. Interestingly, we found sub-strain differences between C57BL/6J and C57BL/6N mice, the latter showing faster learning, less anxiety and lower cell survival in the dDG. We conclude that GAL-R signaling is involved in cognitive functions and can modulate the survival of cells in the neurogenic niche, which might lead to new therapeutic applications. Furthermore, we observed that the mouse sub-strain had a profound impact on the behavioral parameters analyzed and should therefore be carefully considered in future studies.
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Lustberg D, Tillage RP, Bai Y, Pruitt M, Liles LC, Weinshenker D. Noradrenergic circuits in the forebrain control affective responses to novelty. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:3337-3355. [PMID: 32821984 PMCID: PMC7572912 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05615-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE In rodents, exposure to novel environments elicits initial anxiety-like behavior (neophobia) followed by intense exploration (neophilia) that gradually subsides as the environment becomes familiar. Thus, innate novelty-induced behaviors are useful indices of anxiety and motivation in animal models of psychiatric disease. Noradrenergic neurons are activated by novelty and implicated in exploratory and anxiety-like responses, but the role of norepinephrine (NE) in neophobia has not been clearly delineated. OBJECTIVE We sought to define the role of central NE transmission in neophilic and neophobic behaviors. METHODS We assessed dopamine β-hydroxylase knockout (Dbh -/-) mice lacking NE and their NE-competent (Dbh +/-) littermate controls in neophilic (novelty-induced locomotion; NIL) and neophobic (novelty-suppressed feeding; NSF) behavioral tests with subsequent quantification of brain-wide c-fos induction. We complimented the gene knockout approach with pharmacological interventions. RESULTS Dbh -/- mice exhibited blunted locomotor responses in the NIL task and completely lacked neophobia in the NSF test. Neophobia was rescued in Dbh -/- mice by acute pharmacological restoration of central NE with the synthetic precursor L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylserine (DOPS), and attenuated in control mice by the inhibitory α2-adrenergic autoreceptor agonist guanfacine. Following either NSF or NIL, Dbh -/- mice demonstrated reduced c-fos in the anterior cingulate cortex, medial septum, ventral hippocampus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and basolateral amygdala. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that central NE signaling is required for the expression of both neophilic and neophobic behaviors. Further, we describe a putative noradrenergic novelty network as a potential therapeutic target for treating anxiety and substance abuse disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lustberg
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Rachel P Tillage
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Yu Bai
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Molly Pruitt
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - L Cameron Liles
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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Zou Z, Huang Y, Wang J, Min W, Zhou B. DNA methylation of IL-4 gene and the association with childhood trauma in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 2020; 293:113385. [PMID: 32810712 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that aberrations in the immune-inflammatory pathways contribute to the pathophysiology of panic disorder (PD). We aimed to investigate whether an aberrant DNA methylation of the inflammation-related genes in the development of PD, including CCL3, CRP, CSF2, CXCL8, IFNG, IL12B, IL1A, IL-4, IL-6, TNF. Then, the effect of childhood trauma(CT) on methylation levels of inflammation-related genes and the severity of PD was also investigated. We compared the methylation levels of the inflammation-related genes between 113 patients with PD and 130 matched healthy controls using MethylTarget approach. In addition, the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA), Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-28 item Short Form (CTQ-28) were respectively assessed to all subjects. The result found that the methylation levels of IL-4 gene was significantly higher in PD patients than controls. ROC results found that the IL-4 gene had a sensitivity of 52.3% and a specificity of 74.6%. The methylation levels of IL-4 gene was significantly positively related to the severity of panic and anxiety. Finally, the hypermethylation of CSF2, CXCL8 and IL-4 genes was significantly associated with higher CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhili Zou
- Psychosomatic department, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu 610072, China
| | - Yulan Huang
- Psychosomatic department, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu 610072, China
| | - Jinyu Wang
- Psychosomatic department, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu 610072, China
| | - Wenjiao Min
- Psychosomatic department, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu 610072, China
| | - Bo Zhou
- Psychosomatic department, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu 610072, China.
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Berg L, Eckardt J, Masseck OA. Enhanced activity of pyramidal neurons in the infralimbic cortex drives anxiety behavior. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210949. [PMID: 30677060 PMCID: PMC6345483 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
We show that in an animal model of anxiety the overall excitation, particularly in the infralimbic region of the medial prefrontal cortex (IL), is increased and that the activity ratio between excitatory pyramidal neurons and inhibitory interneurons (AR PN/IN) is shifted towards excitation. The same change in AR PN/IN is evident for wildtype mice, which have been exposed to an anxiety stimulus. We hypothesize, that an elevated activity and the imbalance of excitation (PN) and inhibition (IN) within the neuronal microcircuitry of the prefrontal cortex is responsible for anxiety behaviour and employed optogenetic methods in freely moving mice to verify our findings. Consistent with our hypothesis elevation of pyramidal neuron activity in the infralimbic region of the prefrontal cortex significantly enhanced anxiety levels in several behavioural tasks by shifting the AR PN/IN to excitation, without affecting motor behaviour, thus revealing a novel mechanism by which anxiety is facilitated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Berg
- Advanced Fluorescence Microscopy, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Josephine Eckardt
- Department of Systems Neuroscience Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Olivia Andrea Masseck
- Advanced Fluorescence Microscopy, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- University of Bremen, Synthetic Biology, Bremen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Parr T, Friston KJ. Uncertainty, epistemics and active inference. J R Soc Interface 2018; 14:rsif.2017.0376. [PMID: 29167370 PMCID: PMC5721148 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological systems—like ourselves—are constantly faced with uncertainty. Despite noisy sensory data, and volatile environments, creatures appear to actively maintain their integrity. To account for this remarkable ability to make optimal decisions in the face of a capricious world, we propose a generative model that represents the beliefs an agent might possess about their own uncertainty. By simulating a noisy and volatile environment, we demonstrate how uncertainty influences optimal epistemic (visual) foraging. In our simulations, saccades were deployed less frequently to regions with a lower sensory precision, while a greater volatility led to a shorter inhibition of return. These simulations illustrate a principled explanation for some cardinal aspects of visual foraging—and allow us to propose a correspondence between the representation of uncertainty and ascending neuromodulatory systems, complementing that suggested by Yu & Dayan (Yu & Dayan 2005 Neuron46, 681–692. (doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.04.026)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Parr
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Karl J Friston
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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Kamińska K, Lenda T, Konieczny J, Czarnecka A, Lorenc-Koci E. Depressive-like neurochemical and behavioral markers of Parkinson's disease after 6-OHDA administered unilaterally to the rat medial forebrain bundle. Pharmacol Rep 2017; 69:985-994. [PMID: 28843848 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration of multiple neurotransmitter systems, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) as a model substance is mainly used to selectively damage the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons and induce parkinsonian-like motor disturbances in rats. We hypothesized that high doses of this neurotoxin affecting other monoaminergic systems may also evoke the depressive-like behavior. METHODS The impact of 6-OHDA (8, 12, 16μg/4μl) administered unilaterally into the medial forebrain bundle on the sucrose solution intake (a measure of anhedonia) and on the tissue levels of noradrenaline (NA), dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) in the striatum (STR), substantia nigra (SN), prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HIP) was examined in rats pretreated or non-pretreated with desipramine. RESULTS The highest dose of 6-OHDA reduced the preference for 3% sucrose solution both in rats without and with desipramine pretreatment. All used doses of 6-OHDA dramatically decreased DA content in the studied brain structures on the ipsilateral side. NA levels were severely decreased in the ipsilateral STR, HIP and PFC of rats non-pretreated with desipramine and to a much lesser extent in those pretreated with desipramine. In the SN, moderate decreases in NA level were found both in rats pretreated and non-pretreated with desipramine. Higher doses of 6-OHDA reduced 5-HT content in the ipsilateral STR, HIP and PFC, but not in the SN, only in rats non-pretreated with desipramine. CONCLUSIONS Administration of the highest dose of 6-OHDA without desipramine pretreatment evoked neurochemical and behavioral changes resembling the advanced PD with coexisting depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Kamińska
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Tomasz Lenda
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jolanta Konieczny
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Czarnecka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Lorenc-Koci
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, Kraków, Poland.
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Möller M, Du Preez JL, Viljoen FP, Berk M, Harvey BH. N-Acetyl cysteine reverses social isolation rearing induced changes in cortico-striatal monoamines in rats. Metab Brain Dis 2013; 28:687-96. [PMID: 24000072 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-013-9433-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is causally associated with early-life environmental stress, implicating oxidative stress in its pathophysiology. N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a glutathione precursor and antioxidant, is emerging as a useful agent in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia and other psychiatric illnesses. However, its actions on brain monoamine metabolism are unknown. Social isolation rearing (SIR) in rats presents with face, predictive and construct validity for schizophrenia. This study evaluated the dose-dependent effects of NAC (50, 150 and 250 mg/kg/day × 14 days) on SIR- vs. socially reared induced changes in cortico-striatal levels of dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) noradrenaline (NA) and their associated metabolites. SIR induced significant deficits in frontal cortical DA and its metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (Dopac) and homovanillic acid (HVA), reduced 5-HT and its metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), and reduced levels of the NA metabolite, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG). In addition, significant elevations in frontal cortical NA and striatal DA, Dopac, HVA, 5-HT, 5-HIAA, NA and MHPG were also observed in SIR rats. NAC at 150 and 250 mg/kg reversed all cortico-striatal DA, Dopac, HVA, 5-HT, 5-HIAA and striatal NA alterations in SIR animals, with 250 mg/kg of NAC also reversing alterations in cortico-striatal MHPG. In conclusion, SIR profoundly alters cortico-striatal DA, 5-HT and NA pathways that parallel observations in schizophrenia, while these changes are dose-dependently reversed or abrogated by sub-chronic NAC treatment. A modulatory action on cortico-striatal monoamines may explain NACs' therapeutic use in schizophrenia and possibly other psychiatric disorders, where redox dysfunction or oxidative stress is a causal factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Möller
- Division of Pharmacology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa,
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Impact of CYP2C19 phenotypes on escitalopram metabolism and an evaluation of pupillometry as a serotonergic biomarker. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2009; 65:887-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s00228-009-0657-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2009] [Accepted: 04/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Goddard AW, Shekhar A, Whiteman AF, McDougle CJ. Serotoninergic mechanisms in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Drug Discov Today 2008; 13:325-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2007.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2007] [Revised: 12/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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