The potential of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 as a therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease

Mechanisms and preventive measures of ALDH2 in ischemia‑reperfusion injury: Ferroptosis as a novel target (Review)

Ischemia‑reperfusion injury (IRI) refers to tissue or organ damage that occurs following a period of inadequate blood supply (ischemia) followed by restoration of blood flow (reperfusion) within a short time frame. This phenomenon is prevalent in clinical conditions such as cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, organ transplantation and stroke. Despite its frequency, effective therapeutic strategies to mitigate IRI remain elusive in clinical practice, underscoring the need for a deeper understanding of its molecular mechanisms. Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2), a key enzyme in alcohol metabolism, serves a role in alleviating oxidative stress and cell damage during IRI by modulating oxidative stress, decreasing apoptosis and inhibiting inflammatory responses. ALDH2 exerts protective effects by detoxifying reactive aldehydes, thereby preventing lipid peroxidation and maintaining cellular homeostasis. Furthermore, ferroptosis, a regulated form of cell death driven by iron accumulation and subsequent lipid peroxidation, is a key process in IRI. However, the precise role of ALDH2 in modulating ferroptosis during IRI remains incompletely understood. Although there is an interaction between ALDH2 activity and ferroptosis, the underlying mechanisms have yet to be clarified. The present review examines the role of ALDH2 and ferroptosis in IRI and the potential regulatory influence of ALDH2 on ferroptosis mechanisms, as well as potential targeting of ALDH2 and ferroptosis for IRI treatment and prevention. By elucidating the complex interplay between ALDH2 and ferroptosis, the present review aims to provide new insights for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies to mitigate ischemic tissue damage and improve clinical outcomes.

Alda-1 Ameliorates Oxidative Stress-Induced Cardiomyocyte Damage by Inhibiting the Mitochondrial ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3 Pathway

Alda-1 functions as an agonist of aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) within the mitochondria, contributing to the preservation of mitochondrial structure and function. This study aimed to determine whether Alda-1 inhibited the accumulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and improved cardiomyocyte damage under oxidative stress. Cardiomyocytes derived from human induced pluripotent embryonic stem cells (iPSC-CMs) and human AC16 cardiomyocytes were chosen for the experiments. Oxidative stress was induced in both cardiomyocyte types using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a commonly employed agent. The mtROS accumulation and mitochondrial functional status were assessed by measuring the ROS content, mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitochondrial respiratory chain function. Co-IP experiments were used to analyze whether mtROS promoted protein interactions between TXNIP and NLRP3 and induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The results showed that Alda-1 mitigated damage to mitochondrial structure and function under oxidative stress, concurrently reducing the accumulation of mtROS. Co-IP experiments revealed that elevated mtROS levels attenuated the protein interaction between TXNIP and TRX while intensifying the interaction between TXNIP and NLRP3. Consequently, this triggers activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to cardiomyocyte damage. In contrast, TXNIP knockdown inhibited H2O2-induced myocardial injury and enhanced the therapeutic effects of Alda-1. Collectively, the results show that, in an H2O2 environment, Alda-1 increased the production of ALDH2 activity in cardiomyocytes, hindered the production of mtROS, disrupted the interaction between TXNIP and NLRP3, and alleviated myocardial damage during oxidative stress.

Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: an update

Alcohol-induced cardiomyopathy (AC) is an acquired form of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) caused by prolonged and heavy alcohol intake in the absence of other causes. The amount of alcohol required to produce AC is generally considered as >80 g/day over 5 years, but there is still some controversy regarding this definition. This review on AC focuses on pathogenesis, which involves different mechanisms. Firstly, the direct toxic effect of ethanol promotes oxidative stress in the myocardium and activation of the renin-angiotensin system. Moreover, acetaldehyde, the best-studied metabolite of alcohol, can contribute to myocardial damage impairing actin-myosin interaction and producing mitochondrial dysfunction. Genetic factors are also involved in the pathogenesis of AC, with DCM-causing genetic variants in patients with AC, especially titin-truncating variants. These findings support a double-hit hypothesis in AC, combining genetics and environmental factors. The synergistic effect of alcohol with concomitant conditions such as hypertension or liver cirrhosis can be another contributing factor leading to AC. There are no specific cardiac signs and symptoms in AC as compared with other forms of DCM. However, natural history of AC differs from DCM and relies directly on alcohol withdrawal, as left ventricular ejection fraction recovery in abstainers is associated with an excellent prognosis. Thus, abstinence from alcohol is the most crucial step in treating AC, and specific therapies are available for this purpose. Otherwise, AC should be treated according to current guidelines of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Targeted therapies based on AC pathogenesis are currently being developed and could potentially improve AC treatment in the future.

Health position paper and redox perspectives - Disease burden by transportation noise

Transportation noise is a ubiquitous urban exposure. In 2018, the World Health Organization concluded that chronic exposure to road traffic noise is a risk factor for ischemic heart disease. In contrast, they concluded that the quality of evidence for a link to other diseases was very low to moderate. Since then, several studies on the impact of noise on various diseases have been published. Also, studies investigating the mechanistic pathways underlying noise-induced health effects are emerging. We review the current evidence regarding effects of noise on health and the related disease-mechanisms. Several high-quality cohort studies consistently found road traffic noise to be associated with a higher risk of ischemic heart disease, heart failure, diabetes, and all-cause mortality. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that road traffic and railway noise may increase the risk of diseases not commonly investigated in an environmental noise context, including breast cancer, dementia, and tinnitus. The harmful effects of noise are related to activation of a physiological stress response and nighttime sleep disturbance. Oxidative stress and inflammation downstream of stress hormone signaling and dysregulated circadian rhythms are identified as major disease-relevant pathomechanistic drivers. We discuss the role of reactive oxygen species and present results from antioxidant interventions. Lastly, we provide an overview of oxidative stress markers and adverse redox processes reported for noise-exposed animals and humans. This position paper summarizes all available epidemiological, clinical, and preclinical evidence of transportation noise as an important environmental risk factor for public health and discusses its implications on the population level.

Alcohol consumption, alcohol use disorder and organ transplantation

In the present experience we have evaluated the link alcohol consumption/alcohol use disorder (AUD) and organ transplantation (OT) in order to provide adequate suggestions. The data used for the preparation of these recommendations are based on a detailed analysis of the scientific literature published before August 31, 2022 (Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar). Furthermore, in the process of developing this work, we consulted the guidelines/position papers of the scientific societies. With regard to the liver transplantation, there are position papers/guidelines that clearly define indications and contraindications for including the AUD patient in the transplant list. One of the major difficulties in this area is psychosocial assessment which can be influenced by stigma. To solve this problem, it is necessary to use objective tools. However, this assessment should be carried out after providing the patient and family adequate tools to be able to create or recreate reliable socio-family support. This behavior should also be used in the case of other OTs. For the latter, however, adequate guidelines must be created which at the moment do not exist or if there are, as in the case of heart transplantation, they are not sufficient. Even in the absence of obvious alcohol addiction, it is recommended to use alcohol use disorder identification test and to include the addiction specialist in the multidisciplinary transplant team. Besides, providing family members with the tools necessary to better support the patient is essential. They are patients with alcohol use disorder/ possible presence of psychopathological manifestations and alcohol-related pathology (cirrhosis, cardiomyopathy, liver-kidney disfunction, etc.). A cardiovascular and oncologic surveillance post-OT is recommended. For the selection of patients to be included in the list for non-LT (heart, lung, kidney, multivisceral, etc.) it is mandatory to include the diagnosis and treatment of AUDs in the guidelines. What has already been indicated for LT may be useful. Timing of alcoholic abstention in relation to clinical severity, optimal psychosocial activity, anticraving therapy in relation to the type of underlying disease and clinical severity. Close collaboration between scientific societies is required to better manage AUD patients who need OT.

The Generation of Nitric Oxide from Aldehyde Dehydrogenase-2: The Role of Dietary Nitrates and Their Implication in Cardiovascular Disease Management

Reduced bioavailability of the nitric oxide (NO) signaling molecule has been associated with the onset of cardiovascular disease. One of the better-known and effective therapies for cardiovascular disorders is the use of organic nitrates, such as glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), which increases the concentration of NO. Unfortunately, chronic use of this therapy can induce a phenomenon known as "nitrate tolerance", which is defined as the loss of hemodynamic effects and a reduction in therapeutic effects. As such, a higher dosage of GTN is required in order to achieve the same vasodilatory and antiplatelet effects. Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is a cardioprotective enzyme that catalyzes the bio-activation of GTN to NO. Nitrate tolerance is accompanied by an increase in oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and sympathetic activation, as well as a loss of the catalytic activity of ALDH2 itself. On the basis of current knowledge, nitrate intake in the diet would guarantee a concentration of NO such as to avoid (or at least reduce) treatment with GTN and the consequent onset of nitrate tolerance in the course of cardiovascular diseases, so as not to make necessary the increase in GTN concentrations and the possible inhibition/alteration of ALDH2, which aggravates the problem of a positive feedback mechanism. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize data relating to the introduction into the diet of some natural products that could assist pharmacological therapy in order to provide the NO necessary to reduce the intake of GTN and the phenomenon of nitrate tolerance and to ensure the correct catalytic activity of ALDH2.

ALDH2 variance in disease and populations

The ALDH2*2 missense variant that commonly causes alcohol flushing reactions is the single genetic polymorphism associated with the largest number of traits in humans. The dysfunctional ALDH2 variant affects nearly 8% of the world population and is highly concentrated among East Asians. Carriers of the ALDH2*2 variant commonly present alterations in a number of blood biomarkers, clinical measurements, biometrics, drug prescriptions, dietary habits and lifestyle behaviors, and they are also more susceptible to aldehyde-associated diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. However, the interaction between alcohol and ALDH2-related pathology is not clearly delineated. Furthermore, genetic evidence indicates that the ALDH2*2 variant has been favorably selected for in the past 2000-3000 years. It is therefore necessary to consider the disease risk and mechanism associated with ALDH2 deficiency, and to understand the possible beneficial or protective effect conferred by ALDH2 deficiency and whether the pleiotropic effects of ALDH2 variance are all mediated by alcohol use.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase 3B2 promotes the proliferation and invasion of cholangiocarcinoma by increasing Integrin Beta 1 expression

Aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs) play an essential role in regulating malignant tumor progression; however, their role in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) has not been elucidated. We analyzed the expression of ALDHs in 8 paired tumor and peritumor perihilar cholangiocarcinoma (pCCA) tissues and found that ALDH3B1 and ALDH3B2 were upregulated in tumor tissues. Further survival analysis in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA, n = 27), pCCA (n = 87) and distal cholangiocarcinoma (dCCA, n = 80) cohorts have revealed that ALDH3B2 was a prognostic factor of CCA and was an independent prognostic factor of iCCA and pCCA. ALDH3B2 expression was associated with serum CEA in iCCA and dCCA, associated with tumor T stage, M stage, neural invasion and serum CA19-9 in pCCA. In two cholangiocarcinoma cell lines, overexpression of ALDH3B2 promoted cell proliferation and clone formation by promoting the G1/S phase transition. Knockdown of ALDH3B2 inhibited cell migration, invasion, and EMT in vitro, and restrained tumor metastasis in vivo. Patients with high expression of ALDH3B2 also have high expression of ITGB1 in iCCA, pCCA, and dCCA at both mRNA and protein levels. Knockdown of ALDH3B2 downregulated the expression of ITGB1 and inhibited the phosphorylation level of c-Jun, p38, and ERK. Meanwhile, knockdown of ITGB1 inhibited the promoting effect of ALDH3B2 overexpression on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. ITGB1 is also a prognostic factor of iCCA, pCCA, and dCCA and double-positive expression of ITGB1 and ALDH3B2 exhibits better performance in predicting patient prognosis. In conclusion, ALDH3B2 promotes tumor proliferation and metastasis in CCA by regulating the expression of ITGB1 and upregulating its downstream signaling pathway. The double-positive expression of ITGB1 and ALDH3B2 serves as a better prognostic biomarker of CCA.

Magnolol, a natural aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 agonist, inhibits the proliferation and collagen synthesis of cardiac fibroblasts

Inhibiting myocardial fibrosis can help prevent cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure. Magnolol (Mag), a natural component of Magnoliae officinalis, has been reported to inhibit fibrosis. However, the mechanism of Mag activity and its effects on myocardial fibrosis remain unclear. Here, we investigated the involvement of ALDH2, an endogenous protective agent against myocardial fibrosis, in the Mag-mediated inhibition of cardiac fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis. We found that Mag significantly inhibited cardiac fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis, based on the results of MTT, EdU and western blot assays. Moreover, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assays showed that Mag could bind directly and stably to ALDH2. Further analysis of the mechanism of these effects indicated that treatment with Mag dose-dependently enhanced ALDH2 activity without altering protein expression. Mag could enhance the activity of recombinant human ALDH2 proteins with a half-maximal effective concentration of 5.79 × 10^-5 M. In addition, ALDH2 activation via Alda-1 inhibited cardiac fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis, while ALDH2 inhibition via daidzin partially blocked the suppressive effects of Mag. In summary, Mag may act as a natural ALDH2 agonist and inhibit cardiac fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis.

Cardioprotective Effects of PPARβ/δ Activation against Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rat Heart Are Associated with ALDH2 Upregulation, Amelioration of Oxidative Stress and Preservation of Mitochondrial Energy Production

Accumulating evidence support the cardioprotective properties of the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator activated receptor β/δ (PPARβ/δ); however, the underlying mechanisms are not yet fully elucidated. The aim of the study was to further investigate the mechanisms underlying PPARβ/δ-mediated cardioprotection in the setting of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). For this purpose, rats were treated with PPARβ/δ agonist GW0742 and/or antagonist GSK0660 in vivo and hearts were subjected to ex vivo global ischemia followed by reperfusion. PPARβ/δ activation improved left ventricular developed pressure recovery, reduced infarct size (IS) and incidence of reperfusion-induced ventricular arrhythmias while it also up-regulated superoxide dismutase 2, catalase and uncoupling protein 3 resulting in attenuation of oxidative stress as evidenced by the reduction in 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal protein adducts and protein carbonyl formation. PPARβ/δ activation also increased both mRNA expression and enzymatic activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2); inhibition of ALDH2 abrogated the IS limiting effect of PPARβ/δ activation. Furthermore, upregulation of PGC-1α and isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 mRNA expression, increased citrate synthase activity as well as mitochondrial ATP content indicated improvement in mitochondrial content and energy production. These data provide new mechanistic insight into the cardioprotective properties of PPARβ/δ in I/R pointing to ALDH2 as a direct downstream target and suggesting that PPARβ/δ activation alleviates myocardial I/R injury through coordinated stimulation of the antioxidant defense of the heart and preservation of mitochondrial function.

Enhancement of Solubility, Purification, and Inclusion Body Refolding of Active Human Mitochondrial Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2

Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is predominantly linked with acetaldehyde detoxification in the second stage of alcohol metabolism. To intensively study ALDH2 function, a higher purity and uniform composition of the protein is required. An efficient Escherichia coli system for ALDH2 expression was developed by using His and a small ubiquitin-related modifier fusion tag. Most of the recombinant ALDH2s were expressed in the form of inclusion bodies. The ALDH2-enriched inclusion bodies were denatured with 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, and then ALDH2 was ultrafitrated. Finally, ALDH2 was successfully purified through affinity and gel filtration chromatography. The purified ALDH2 was finally preserved by the vacuum freeze-drying method, and its purity was determined to be higher than 95%, with a final media yield of 33.89 mg/L. The specific activity of ALDH2 was 6.1 × 10⁴ U/mg. This work was the first to report pET-SUMO-ALDH2 recombinant plasmid expression in Escherichia coli, and the inclusion bodies were isolated and refolded. Finally, the purified ALDH2 had relatively higher purity, yield, and biological activity.

Revisiting pharmacology of oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular disease: Evidence for redox-based therapies

According to the latest Global Burden of Disease Study data, non-communicable diseases in general and cardiovascular disease (CVD) in particular are the leading cause of premature death and reduced quality of life. Demographic shifts, unhealthy lifestyles and a higher burden of adverse environmental factors provide an explanation for these findings. The expected growing prevalence of CVD requires enhanced research efforts for identification and characterisation of novel therapeutic targets and strategies. Cardiovascular risk factors including classical (e.g. hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia) and non-classical (e.g. environmental stress) factors induce the development of endothelial dysfunction, which is closely associated with oxidant stress and vascular inflammation and results in CVD, particularly in older adults. Most classically successful therapies for CVD display vasoprotective, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, but were originally designed with other therapeutic aims. So far, only a few 'redox drugs' are in clinical use and many antioxidant strategies have not met expectations. With the present review, we summarise the actual knowledge on CVD pathomechanisms, with special emphasis on endothelial dysfunction, adverse redox signalling and oxidative stress, highlighting the preclinical and clinical evidence. In addition, we provide a brief overview of established CVD therapies and their relation to endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Finally, we discuss novel strategies for redox-based CVD therapies trying to explain why, despite a clear link between endothelial dysfunction and adverse redox signalling and oxidative stress, redox- and oxidative stress-based therapies have not yet provided a breakthrough in the treatment of endothelial dysfunction and CVD.

Environmental aircraft noise aggravates oxidative DNA damage, granulocyte oxidative burst and nitrate resistance in Ogg1-/- mice

Background: Large epidemiological studies point towards a link between the incidence of arterial hypertension, ischaemic heart disease, metabolic disease and exposure to traffic noise, supporting the role of noise exposure as an independent cardiovascular risk factor. We characterised the underlying molecular mechanisms leading to noise-dependent adverse effects on the vasculature and myocardium in an animal model of aircraft noise exposure and identified oxidative stress and inflammation as central players in mediating vascular and cardiac dysfunction. Here, we studied the impact of noise-induced oxidative DNA damage on vascular function in DNA-repair deficient 8-oxoguanine glycosylase knockout (Ogg1^-/-) mice.Methods and results: Noise exposure (peak sound levels of 85 and mean sound level of 72 dB(A) applied for 4d) caused oxidative DNA damage (8-oxoguanine) and enhanced NOX-2 expression in C57BL/6 mice with synergistic increases in Ogg1^-/- mice (shown by immunohistochemistry). A similar pattern was found for oxidative burst of blood leukocytes and other markers of oxidative stress (4-hydroxynonenal, 3-nitrotyrosine) and inflammation (cyclooxygenase-2). We observed additive impairment of noise exposure and genetic Ogg1 deficiency on endothelium-independent relaxation (nitroglycerine), which may be due to exacerbated oxidative DNA damage leading to leukocyte activation and oxidative aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibition.Conclusions: The finding that chronic noise exposure causes oxidative DNA damage in mice is worrisome since these potential mutagenic lesions could contribute to cancer progression. Human field studies have to demonstrate whether oxidative DNA damage is also found in urban populations with high levels of noise exposure as recently shown for workers with high occupational noise exposure.

Mitochondrially-targeted treatment strategies

Disruption of mitochondrial function is a common feature of inherited mitochondrial diseases (mitochondriopathies) and many other infectious and non-infectious diseases including viral, bacterial and protozoan infections, inflammatory and chronic pain, neurodegeneration, diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular diseases. Mitochondria therefore become an attractive target for developing new therapies. In this review we describe critical mechanisms involved in the maintenance of mitochondrial functionality and discuss strategies used to identify and validate mitochondrial targets in different diseases. We also highlight the most recent preclinical and clinical findings using molecules targeting mitochondrial bioenergetics, morphology, number, content and detoxification systems in common pathologies.

Expression, purification and crystallization of the novel Xenopus tropicalis ALDH16B1, a homologue of human ALDH16A1

ALDH16 is a novel family of the aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) superfamily with unique structural characteristics that distinguish it from the other ALDH superfamily members. In addition to structural characteristics, there is an evolutionary-related grouping within the ALDH 16 genes. The ALDH16 isozymes in frog, lower animals, and bacteria possess a critical Cys residue in their active site, which is absent from ALDH16 in mammals and fish. Genomic analysis and plasma metabolomic studies have associated ALDH16A1 with the pathogenesis of gout in humans, although its actual involvement in this disease is poorly understood. Insight into the structure of ALDH16A1 is an important step in deciphering its function in gout. Herein, we report our efforts towards the structural characterization of Xenopus tropicalis ALDH16B1 (the homolog of human ALDH16A1) that was predicted to be catalytically-active. Recombinant ALDH16B1 was expressed in Sf9 cells and purified using affinity and size exclusion chromatography. Crystallization of ALDH16B1 was achieved by vapor diffusion. A data set was collected at 2.5 Å and preliminary crystallographic analysis showed that the frog ALDH16B1 crystals belong to the P 2₁2 ₁2₁ space group with unit cell parameters a = 80.48 Å, b = 89.73 Å, c = 190.92 Å, α = β = γ = 90.00°. Structure determination is currently in progress.

ALDH2 and Stroke: A Systematic Review of the Evidence

Cerebral stroke is one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide. The prevalence of cerebral stroke is the result of the synergistic effect of genetic susceptibility and numerous vascular risk factors, including hypertension, diabetes, excessive alcohol intake, obesity, and dyslipidemia. Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) is a vital enzyme metabolizing various acetaldehyde and toxic aldehydes. The ALDH2 enzymatic activity is severely decreased in the individuals with ALDH2*2 gene mutation, especially in East Asians. Increasing epidemiological surveys have revealed that ALDH2 genetic polymorphism is closely associated with the increasing incidence of cardiovascular risk factors and cerebral stroke. Evidence from experimental studies has also suggested that ALDH2 facilitates the clearance of reactive aldehydes and reduces the size of cerebral infarct. Therefore, targeting ALDH2 may represent a promising avenue for protection against stroke injury. This review will mainly focus on clinical and epidemiological evidence and the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in the protective effect of ALDH2 in stroke-related injury.

Mechanisms of cardiac ethanol toxicity and novel treatment options

Ethanol can acutely and chronically alter cardiomyocyte and whole-organ function in the heart. Importantly, ethanol acutely and chronically predisposes to arrhythmias, while chronic abuse can induce heart failure. However, the molecular mechanisms of ethanol toxicity in the heart are incompletely understood. In this review, we summarize the current mechanistic knowledge on cardiac ethanol toxicity, with a focus on druggable pathways. Ethanol effects on excitation-contraction coupling, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and cardiac metabolism, as well as effects of ethanol metabolites will be discussed. Important recent findings have been gained by investigation of acute ethanol effects. These include a renewed focus on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induction of SR Ca²⁺ leak by CaMKII-mediated pathways downstream of ROS. Furthermore, a clinical outlook into potential novel treatment options is provided.

Targeting mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in heart failure: Challenges and opportunities

Mitochondrial dysfunction characterized by impaired bioenergetics, oxidative stress and aldehydic load is a hallmark of heart failure. Recently, different research groups have provided evidence that selective activation of mitochondrial detoxifying systems that counteract excessive accumulation of ROS, RNS and reactive aldehydes is sufficient to stop cardiac degeneration upon chronic stress, such as heart failure. Therefore, pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches targeting mitochondria detoxification may play a critical role in the prevention or treatment of heart failure. In this review we discuss the most recent findings on the central role of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and aldehydic load in heart failure, highlighting the most recent preclinical and clinical studies using mitochondria-targeted molecules and exercise training as effective tools against heart failure.

Role of autophagy and regulatory mechanisms in alcoholic cardiomyopathy

Alcoholism is accompanied with a high incidence of cardiac morbidity and mortality due to the development of alcoholic cardiomyopathy, manifested as dilation of one or both ventricles, reduced ventricular wall thickness, myofibrillary disarray, interstitial fibrosis, hypertrophy and contractile dysfunction. Several theories have been postulated for the etiology of alcoholic cardiomyopathy including ethanol/acetaldehyde toxicity, mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species, oxidative injury, apoptosis, impaired myofilament Ca²⁺ sensitivity and protein synthesis, altered fatty acid extraction and deposition, as well as accelerated protein catabolism. In particular, buildup of long-lived or dysfunctional organelles has been reported to contribute to cardiac structural and functional damage following alcoholism. Removal of cell debris and defective organelles by autophagy is essential to the maintenance of cardiac homeostasis in physiological and pathological conditions. However, insufficient understanding is currently available with regards to the involvement of autophagy in the pathogenesis of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. This review summarizes the recent findings on the pathophysiological role of dysregulated autophagy in one set and development of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. A thorough understanding of how autophagy is affected in alcoholism, and subsequently, contributes to the pathogenesis of alcoholic heart injury, will offer therapeutic guidance towards the management of alcoholic cardiomyopathy.