Understanding Trait and Sources Effects in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder Rating Scales: Mothers', Fathers', and Teachers' Ratings of Children From the Balearic Islands

Structure of ADHD/ODD Symptoms in Spanish Preschool Children: Dangers of Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Evaluation of Rating Scales

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is often used to evaluate attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptom ratings by parents and teachers. An ADHD-inattention (IN), ADHD-hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI), and ODD three-factor model is usually the best model. Acceptable CFA models, however, can hide symptoms with poor convergent and discriminant validity. To demonstrate this issue, CFA models (i.e., cross-loadings set to zero) along with exploratory CFA models (i.e., cross-loadings allowed) were applied to parent (n = 308) and teacher (n = 258) ratings of ADHD/ODD symptoms with Spanish preschool children (M_age = 4.78, SD = .84, 56% boys). While the three-factor CFA model provided an acceptable-fit with moderate to substantial symptom-factor loadings, the three-factor exploratory CFA model, however, found a large number of the symptoms failed to show convergent and discriminant validity. These outcomes argue for the use of exploratory CFA procedures in the initial evaluation of ADHD/ODD rating scales.

Which kindergarten children are at greatest risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity and conduct disorder symptomatology as adolescents?

We sought to identify which kindergarten children are simultaneously at risk of moderate or severe symptomatology in both attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD) as adolescents. These risk factor estimates have not been previously available. We conducted multinomial logistic regression analyses of multiinformant ratings by the end of middle school of a population-based, longitudinal sample of children followed from kindergarten to eighth grade (N = 7,456). Kindergarten children from low SES households, those raised by mothers with depressive symptoms or experiencing emotional problems or substance abuse, or those who were punished by spanking were significantly more likely to later display severe levels of ADHD-CD symptomatology in eighth grade. Kindergarten children frequently engaging in ADHD-CD-type behaviors were more likely to later experience both moderate (covariate adjusted OR = 2.37) and severe (covariate adjusted OR = 3.63) ADHD-CD symptomatology. Low academic achievement uniquely increased the risk of both moderate and severe symptomatology (adjusted OR range = 1.7 to 2.24). The results should guide early screening and school-based intervention efforts for ADHD-CD. Reducing children's risk for adolescent ADHD-CD symptomatology may require remediating low behavioral and academic functioning by the end of kindergarten. When these 2 modifiable factors occur together they increase kindergarten children's odds of experiencing severe ADHD-CD symptomatology in eighth grade by a multiplicative factor of 8.1.

Testing for measurement invariance and latent mean differences across methods: interesting incremental information from multitrait-multimethod studies

Models of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) are frequently applied to examine the convergent validity of scores obtained from multiple raters or methods in so-called multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) investigations. We show that interesting incremental information about method effects can be gained from including mean structures and tests of MI across methods in MTMM models. We present a modeling framework for testing MI in the first step of a CFA-MTMM analysis. We also discuss the relevance of MI in the context of four more complex CFA-MTMM models with method factors. We focus on three recently developed multiple-indicator CFA-MTMM models for structurally different methods [the correlated traits-correlated (methods – 1), latent difference, and latent means models; Geiser et al., 2014a; Pohl and Steyer, 2010; Pohl et al., 2008] and one model for interchangeable methods (Eid et al., 2008). We demonstrate that some of these models require or imply MI by definition for a proper interpretation of trait or method factors, whereas others do not, and explain why MI may or may not be required in each model. We show that in the model for interchangeable methods, testing for MI is critical for determining whether methods can truly be seen as interchangeable. We illustrate the theoretical issues in an empirical application to an MTMM study of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with mother, father, and teacher ratings as methods.

The Link between Peer Relations, Prosocial Behavior, and ODD/ADHD Symptoms in 7-9-Year-Old Children

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are characterized by symptoms that hinder successful positive interaction with peers. The main goal of this study was to examine if the presence of symptoms of ODD and ADHD affects the relationship between positive social behavior and peer status found in 7–9-year-old children who show symptoms typical of ADHD and/or ODD. Furthermore, the possible interaction with sex was investigated. We used data collected in the first wave of The Bergen Child Study of mental health (BCS), a prospective longitudinal total population study of children's developmental and mental health. The target population consisted of children in the second to the fourth, in all public, private, and special schools in Bergen, Norway, in the fall of 2002 (N = 9430). All 79 primary schools in Bergen participated in the study. Both teacher (8809 complete cases) and parent (6253 complete cases) report were used in the analyses. ADHD and ODD scores were estimated using the Swanson Noland and Pelham rating scale version IV (SNAP-IV), and peer problems and prosocial behavior were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). We replicated the relationship between peer problems and prosocial behavior found previously in typically developing children. Our results showed that the relationship between peer problems and prosocial behavior became weaker as the ODD symptoms increased in number and severity. For ADHD this effect was only found in the teacher report of the children. A sex effect for ODD symptoms was found only using the parent report: boys with ODD symptoms showed less prosocial behavior than girls with similar levels of ODD symptoms. Since this effect was not found using the teacher data, it may imply a situational effect (school/home) for girls with high levels of ODD. The moderator effect of ODD/ADHD was comparable for boys and girls. Our findings suggest that even if children with ADHD/ODD symptoms have the opportunity to practice their social skills in peer relationships, this is not necessarily accompanied by an increase in prosocial behavior.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder: prevalence based on parent and teacher ratings of Malaysian primary school children

BACKGROUND

This study examined the prevalence rate of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) in Malaysian primary school children.

METHODS

In all 934 Malaysian parents and teachers completed ratings of their children using a scale comprising DSM-IV-TR ODD symptoms.

RESULTS

Results showed rates of 3.10%, 3.85%, 7.49% and 0.64% for parent, teacher, parent or teacher ("or-rule"), and parent and teacher ("and-rule") ratings, respectively. When the functional impairment criterion was not considered, the rate reported by parents was higher at 13.28%.

DISCUSSION

The theoretical, diagnostic and cultural implications of the findings are discussed.

Construct validity of ADHD/ODD rating scales: recommendations for the evaluation of forthcoming DSM-V ADHD/ODD scales

Exploratory structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to a multiple indicator (26 individual symptom ratings) by multitrait (ADHD-IN, ADHD-HI and ODD factors) by multiple source (mothers, fathers and teachers) model to test the invariance, convergent and discriminant validity of the Child and Adolescent Disruptive Behavior Inventory with 872 Thai adolescents and the ADHD Rating Scale-IV and ODD scale of the Disruptive Behavior Inventory with 1,749 Spanish children. Most of the individual ADHD/ODD symptoms showed convergent and discriminant validity with the loadings and thresholds being invariant over mothers, fathers and teachers in both samples (the three latent factor means were higher for parents than teachers). The ADHD-IN, ADHD-HI and ODD latent factors demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity between mothers and fathers within the two samples. Convergent and discriminant validity between parents and teachers for the three factors was either absent (Thai sample) or only partial (Spanish sample). The application of exploratory SEM to a multiple indicator by multitrait by multisource model should prove useful for the evaluation of the construct validity of the forthcoming DSM-V ADHD/ODD rating scales.

Anger and irritability symptoms among youth with ODD: cross-informant versus source-exclusive syndromes

We examined differences in co-occurring psychological symptoms and background characteristics among clinically referred youth with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) with and without anger/irritability symptoms (AIS) according to either parent or teacher (source-exclusive) and both informants (cross-informant), youth with noncompliant symptoms (NS) of ODD, and non-ODD clinic controls. Parents and teachers evaluated 1127 youth (ages 6-18) with a DSM-IV-referenced rating scale to assess ODD and co-occurring psychological symptoms. Parents also completed a background questionnaire (demographic, developmental, treatment, relationship, and academic characteristics) and teachers rated school functioning. Source-exclusive AIS groups were associated with different clinical features, and there was some evidence that cross-informant youth had more mental health concerns than source-exclusive groups. Findings varied to some extent among older (12-18 years) versus younger (6-11 years) youth. In general, the NS group (youth without AIS) was the most similar to clinic controls. AIS and NS are likely candidates for component phenotypes in ODD and continued research into their pathogenesis may have important implications for nosology, etiology, and intervention.

Symptoms of autism and schizophrenia spectrum disorders in clinically referred youth with oppositional defiant disorder

Examined autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SSD) symptoms in a clinically referred, non-ASD sample (N=1160; ages 6-18) with and without oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Mothers and teachers completed DSM-IV-referenced symptom checklists. Youth with ODD were subdivided into angry/irritable symptom (AIS) or noncompliant symptom (NS) subtypes. Two different classification strategies were used: within-informant (source-specific) and between-informant (source-exclusive). For the source-specific strategy, youth were classified AIS, NS, or Control (C) according to mothers' and teachers' ratings separately. A second set of analyses focused on youth classified AIS according to mother or teacher report but not both (source-exclusive) versus both mother and teacher (cross-informant) AIS. Results indicated the mother-defined source-specific AIS groups generally evidenced the most severe ASD and SSD symptoms (AIS>NS>C), but this was more pronounced among younger youth. Teacher-defined source-specific ODD groups exhibited comparable levels of symptom severity (AIS, NS>C) with the exception of SSD (AIS>NS>C; younger youth). Source-exclusive AIS groups were clearly differentiated from each other, but there was little evidence of differential symptom severity in cross-informant versus source-exclusive AIS. These findings were largely dependent on the informant used to define the source-exclusive groups. AIS and NS groups differed in their associations with ASD and SSD symptoms. Informant discrepancy provides valuable information that can inform nosological and clinical concerns and has important implications for studies that use different strategies to configure clinical phenotypes.

Optimismus und Pessimismus bei Vorschulkindern

Zusammenfassung. Ziel der vorliegenden Studie ist die Untersuchung der psychometrischen Eigenschaften, faktoriellen Struktur und konvergenten Validität der deutschsprachigen Version des Parent Rated Life Orientation Test of Children (PLOT) zur Messung von Optimismus und Pessimismus bei 4 bis 6-jährigen Vorschulkindern. Eltern von 145 Kindergartenkindern (77 Mädchen; Alter: M = 5.0, SD = 0.6 Jahre) schätzten Optimismus und Pessimismus sowie Emotionsregulation der Kinder ein. Außerdem wurde das Problemverhalten der Kinder (Eltern- und Erzieherinneneinschätzung) erfasst. Konsistent zu Studien mit Schulkindern und Jugendlichen zeigte sich eine zweidimensionale Faktorenstruktur mit einem Optimismus- und einem Pessimismusfaktor. Die Ergebnisse ergaben theoriekonforme Zusammenhänge mit Problemverhalten und Emotionsregulation der Kinder. Insgesamt weisen die gefundenen Reliabilitäts- und Validitätswerte auf eine gute Verwendbarkeit des PLOT bei Vorschulkindern hin. Das neue Messverfahren kann einen Beitrag zum besseren Verständnis von Zukunftserwartungen bei Vorschulkindern leisten und als Screening-Instrument zur Identifikation von Kindern mit einem Entwicklungsrisiko dienen.

Bidirectional Relationships Between Parenting Stress and Child Coping Competence: Findings From the Pace Study

The present study was designed to evaluate the bidirectional relationships between parenting stress and child coping competence. Data from a diverse sample of 610 parents enrolled in the parenting our children to excellence program was used to evaluate whether parenting stress negatively contributes to affective, achievement, and social coping competence in preschoolers, as well as whether child coping competence predicts parenting stress; after accounting for child disruptive behavior. Results from cross-lagged panel analyses demonstrated a bidirectional relationship, such that parenting stress predicted later child coping competence and child coping competence predicted later parenting stress. Assessment of ethnicity differences indicated that child coping continues to have a long-term impact on parenting stress, regardless of parent ethnicity. The same relationship did not hold for earlier parenting stress on later child coping competence, however, indicating a bidirectional relationship for African American families, but not for their European American counterparts. The relationship between parenting stress and child coping competence is discussed with respect to their conceptual and clinical implications. Suggestions for parent training intervention and prevention programs are given.

Changes in emotion regulation following cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxious youth

This study examined emotion-related functioning following cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) with 37 youth with anxiety disorders (22 boys, 15 girls) ranging in age from 7 to 15 with a principal diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder (n = 27), separation anxiety disorder (n = 12), and/or social phobia (n = 13). Treated youth exhibited a reduction in anxiety and increased anxiety self-efficacy and emotional awareness at posttreatment. Treated youth also demonstrated improved coping and less emotional dysregulation with worry but not with anger or sadness. The results suggest that the gains made in worry regulation do not generalize to other emotions that are not specifically targeted within the CBT protocol.