Plasma Glutamine Changes After High-Intensity Exercise in Elite Male Swimmers

Exercise-induced response of proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic plasma free amino acids is sport-specific: A comparison of sprint and endurance athletes

Circulating blood is an important plasma free amino acids (PFAAs) reservoir and a pivotal link between metabolic pathways. No comparisons are available between athletes with opposite training adaptations that include a broader spectrum of both proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids, and that take into account skeletal muscle mass. We hypothesized that the levels of the exercise-induced PFAAs concentration are related to the type of training-related metabolic adaptation. We compared highly trained endurance athletes (n = 11) and sprinters (n = 10) aged 20‒35 years who performed incremental exercise until exhaustion. Venous blood was collected before and during the test and 30-min recovery (12 samples). Forty-two PFAAs were assayed using LC-ESI-MS/MS technique. Skeletal muscle mass was estimated using dual X-ray absorptiometry method. Glutamine and alanine were dominant PFAAs throughout the whole exercise and recovery period (~350‒650 μmol∙L-1). Total, combined proteinogenic, non-essential, and non-proteinogenic PFAAs levels were significantly higher in endurance athletes than sprinters (ANOVA group effects: p = 0.007, η2 = 0.321; p = 0.011, η2 = 0.294; p = 0.003, η2 = 0.376; p = 0.001, η2 = 0.471, respectively). The exercise response was more pronounced in endurance athletes, especially for non-proteinogenic PFAAs (ANOVA interaction effect: p = 0.038, η2 = 0.123). Significant between-group differences were observed for 19 of 33 PFAAs detected, including 4 essential, 7 non-essential, and 8 non-proteinogenic ones. We demonstrated that the PFAAs response to incremental aerobic exercise is associated with the type of training-related metabolic adaptation. A greater turnover and availability of circulating PFAAs for skeletal muscles and other body tissues is observed in endurance- than in sprint-trained individuals. Non-proteinogenic PFAAs, despite low concentrations, also respond to exercise loads, indicating their important, though less understood role in exercise metabolism. Our study provides additional insight into the exercise-induced physiological response of PFAAs, and may also provide a rationale in discussions regarding dietary amino acid requirements in high-performance athletes with respect to sports specialization.

Changes in Plasma Free Amino Acid Profile in Endurance Athletes over a 9-Month Training Cycle

We aimed to evaluate long-term changes in proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic plasma free amino acids (PFAA). Eleven male endurance triathletes participated in a 9-month study. Blood was collected at rest, immediately after exhaustive exercise, and during 30-min recovery, in four consecutive training phases: transition, general, specific, and competition. Twenty proteinogenic and 22 non-proteinogenic PFAAs were assayed using the LC-ESI-MS/MS technique. The structured training modified the patterns of exercise-induced PFAA response, with the competition phase being the most distinct from the others. Branched-chain amino acids (p = 0.002; η2 = 0.216), phenylalanine (p = 0.015; η2 = 0.153), methionine (p = 0.002; η2 = 0.206), and lysine (p = 0.006; η2 = 0.196) declined more rapidly between rest and exhaustion in the competition phase. Glutamine (p = 0.008; η2 = 0.255), glutamate (p = 0.006; η2 = 0.265), tyrosine (p = 0.001; η2 = 0.195), cystine (p = 0.042; η2 = 0.183), and serine (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.346) levels were reduced in the competition phase. Arginine (p = 0.046; η2 = 0.138) and aspartate (p = 0.011; η2 = 0.171) levels were highest during exercise in the transition phase. During the competition phase, α-aminoadipic acid (p = 0.023; η2 = 0.145), β-aminoisobutyric acid (p = 0.007; η2 = 0.167), β-alanine (p < 0.001; η2 = 0.473), and sarcosine (p = 0.017; η2 = 0.150) levels increased, whereas phosphoethanolamine (p = 0.037; η2 = 0.189) and taurine (p = 0.008; η2 = 0.251) concentrations decreased. Overtraining indicators were not elevated. The altered PFAA profile suggests adaptations within energy metabolic pathways such as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, ammonia neutralization, the purine nucleotide cycle, and buffering of intracellular H+ ions. The changes seem to reflect normal adaptations.

Plasma Amino Acids and Acylcarnitines Are Associated with the Female but Not Male Adolescent Swimmer's Performance: An Integration between Mass Spectrometry and Complex Network Approaches

The main aim of this study was to compare the performance over different distances, the critical velocity (CV), and plasma acylcarnitines/amino acids of male and female adolescent swimmers. Moreover, we applied the complex network approach to identify which molecules are associated with athletes' performances. On the first day under a controlled environment, blood samples were collected after 12 h of overnight fasting. Performance trials (100, 200, 400, and 800-m) were randomly performed in the subsequent four days in a swimming pool, and CV was determined by linear distance versus time mathematical function. Metabolomic analyses were carried out on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer performing electrospray ionization in the positive ionization mode. No difference was observed between the performance of male and female swimmers. Except for 200-m distance (p = 0.08), plasma tyrosine was positively and significantly associated with the female times during the trials (100-m, p = 0.04; 400-m, p = 0.04; 800-m, p = 0.02), and inversely associated with the CV (p = 0.02). The complex network approach showed that glycine (0.406), glutamine (0.400), arginine (0.335), free carnitine (0.355), tryptophan (0.289), and histidine (0.271) were the most influential nodes to reach tyrosine. These results revealed a thread that must be explored in further randomized/controlled designs, improving the knowledge surrounding nutrition and the performance of adolescent swimmers.

Effect of physical activity on glutamine metabolism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Glutamine is largely synthesized in skeletal muscles and provides fuel to rapidly dividing cells of the immune system and precursors to gluconeogenesis in the liver. Physical exercise is known to affect glutamine synthesis and to modulate glutamine uptake. Overtraining is frequently associated with reduced availability of glutamine and decreased immunocompetence. Inactivity affects glutamine metabolism, but this subject was poorly investigated.

RECENT FINDINGS

Strenuous physical exercise as well as exhaustive training programs lead to glutamine depletion due to lowered synthesis and enhanced uptake by liver and immune cells. Evidence suggests that postexercise glutamine depletion is associated with immunodepression. Counterwise, moderate training leads to improved glutamine availability due to a positive balance between muscle synthesis and peripheral clearance. Physical inactivity, as investigated by experimental bed rest in healthy volunteers, reduced glutamine synthesis and availability.

SUMMARY

After exercise, a reduced glutamine availability may be considered as a marker of overtraining. An increased glutamine availability may contribute to decreased inflammation and health benefits associated with optimal training. Thus, glutamine supplementation may enhance immunocompetence after strenuous exercise. The potential of glutamine supplementation during physical inactivity needs to be explored.

Low carbohydrate diet decreases myocardial insulin signaling and increases susceptibility to myocardial ischemia

AIMS

Low Carbohydrate Diets (LCD) are a popular intervention for weight loss, but the effect of such diets on myocardial ischemia is not known. Myocardial energy substrates and insulin signaling pathways may be affected by these diets, and both may play a role in protection of ischemic myocardium. We investigated whether LCD increases susceptibility to cardiac injury during ischemia and reperfusion in the isolated rat heart.

MAIN METHODS

Rats were fed LCD (60% kcal from fat/30% protein/10% carbohydrate) or a control diet (CONT; 16%/19%/65%) for 2 weeks. Hearts from rats fed with LCD or CONT were isolated and subjected to normal perfusion in Langendorff mode, with 30 min global low flow ischemia (LFI; 0.3 ml/min) followed by 60 min reperfusion, or 60 min LFI followed by 120 min reperfusion.

KEY FINDINGS

LCD diet led to an increase in 3-hydroxybutyrate and lower circulating insulin. LCD diet also resulted in impaired left ventricular performance during LFI, reduced recovery of function following LFI and reperfusion, and 10- to 20-fold increased injury as measured by lactate dehydrogenase release and histologic infarct area. LCD diet also led to lower myocardial glycogen stores and glycogen utilization during LFI, and lower insulin signaling as assessed by Akt phosphorylation at the end of LFI and reperfusion, but no differences in ERK 1/2 phosphorylation.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results demonstrate that LCD affects myocardial energy substrates, affects insulin signaling, and increases myocardial injury following ischemia-reperfusion in the isolated heart.

Glutamine: the nonessential amino acid for performance enhancement

Glutamine is a popular dietary supplement consumed for purported ergogenic benefits of increased strength, quicker recovery, decreased frequency of respiratory infections, and prevention of overtraining. From a biochemical standpoint, glutamine does play a physiologic role in each of these areas, but it remains only one of a host of factors involved. This review examines the effects of glutamine on exercise and demonstrates a lack of evidence for definitive positive ergogenic benefits as a result of glutamine supplementation.

Plasma glutamine responses to high-intensity exercise before and after endurance training

Glutamine responses to strenuous interval exercise were examined before and after 6 weeks of endurance training. Glutamine measures were obtained before and after the interval exercise sessions and training in untrained males assigned to training (T; n = 10) or control (C; n = 10) groups. Before training, C and T group glutamine progressively decreased (p < 0.05) by 18% and 16%, respectively, by 150-min postinterval exercise. Over the training period C group glutamine did not change, while T group values increased (p < 0.05) by 14%. After training, glutamine again decreased (p < 0.05) by similar percentages (C = 16% and T = 15%) by 150-min postinterval exercise, but the T group recorded higher (p < 0.05) resting and postexercise glutamine concentrations than the C group. Training induced increases in glutamine may prevent the decline in glutamine levels following strenuous exercise falling below a threshold where immune function might be acutely compromised.

Environmental and infectious conditions in sports

The hearts and lungs of athletes are subject to damage from a wide array of infections and environmental factors. Mild to moderate exercise has been shown to be beneficial to overall health, and strenuous exercise simply requires proper rest and rehabilitation to ensure its beneficial effects as well. Simple colds and URTIs are very common in athletes and do not usually require significant intervention. Any suspected cardiac infection mandates a thorough evaluation and proper management to prevent catastrophic consequences. High altitudes can be helpful in enhancing performance, but caution must be exercised at even modest altitude to prevent serious complications. With diving, participants should know their time limits and ascend properly to avoid serious complications. Keeping the heart and lungs in a good state of health is a major priority for the weekend warrior and world-class athletes alike. A thorough knowledge of infections and environmental issues in the cardiopulmonary health of athletes should always be of highest priority.