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Fisher EM, Kuhlman MR, Choi YW, Jordan TL, Sunderman M. Persistence of SARS-Co-V-2 on N95 filtering facepiece respirators: implications for reuse. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2021; 18:570-578. [PMID: 34569911 PMCID: PMC8915317 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2021.1985727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In response to the shortage of N95 filtering facepiece respirators for healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued guidance for extended use and limited reuse of N95 FFRs to conserve supply. Previously worn N95 filtering facepiece respirators can serve as a source of pathogens, which can be transferred to the wearer while doffing and donning a respirator when practicing reuse. When practicing limited filtering facepiece respirators reuse, to reduce the risk of self-contamination, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends storing filtering facepiece respirators for five days between uses to allow for the decay of viable pathogens including SARS-CoV-2. This study assesses the persistence of the SARS-CoV-2 strain USA-WA1/2020 on N95 filtering facepiece respirators under controlled storage conditions for up to 5 days to inform the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidance. Coupons excised from six N95 filtering facepiece respirator models and glass slide coverslips were inoculated with the virus in a defined culture medium and in human saliva and stored at 20 °C and 20%, 45%, and 75% relative humidity. Statistically significant differences in SARS-CoV-2 half-lives were measured among the tested humidity levels with half-lives decreasing from an average of approximately 30 hr at 20% relative humidity to approximately 2 hr at 75% relative humidity. Significant differences in virus half-lives were also observed between the culture medium and saliva suspension media at 20% and 45% relative humidity with half lives up to 2.9 times greater when the virus was suspended in cell culture medium. The 5-day storage strategy, assessed in this study, resulted in a minimum of 93.4% reduction in viable virus for the most challenging condition (20% relative humidity, cell culture medium) and exceeding 99% reduction in virus at all other conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M. Fisher
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Locke L, Dada O, Shedd JS. Aerosol Transmission of Infectious Disease and the Efficacy of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): A Systematic Review. J Occup Environ Med 2021; 63:e783-e791. [PMID: 34419986 PMCID: PMC8562920 DOI: 10.1097/jom.0000000000002366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Health care professionals and governmental agencies are in consensus regarding contact and droplet transmission of infectious diseases. However, personal protective equipment (PPE) efficacy is not considered for aerosol or airborne transmission of infectious diseases. This review discusses the inhalation of virus-laden aerosols as a viable mechanism of transmission of various respiratory infectious diseases and PPE efficacy. METHODS The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews, and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines was used. RESULTS The transmission of infectious disease is of concern for all respirable diseases discussed (SARS-CoV-1, SARS-CoV-2, MERS, influenza, and tuberculosis), and the effectiveness of facemasks is dependent on the efficiency of the filter, fit, and proper use. CONCLUSION PPE should be the last resort in preventing the spread of infectious disease and should only be used for protection and not to control the transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laramie Locke
- Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Murray State University, Kentucky (Mr Locke, Dr Dada); Eastman Chemical Company, Tennessee (Mr Locke); and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama (Mr Shedd)
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Bergman M, Fisher EM, Heimbuch BK. A Review of Decontamination Methods for Filtering Facepiece Respirators. JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR RESPIRATORY PROTECTION 2020; 37:71-86. [PMID: 33268915 PMCID: PMC7707143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
During the current COVID-19 infectious disease pandemic, the demand for NIOSH-approved filtering facepiece respirators (FFR) has exceeded supplies and decontamination and reuse of FFRs has been implemented by various user groups. FFR decontamination and reuse is only intended to be implemented as a crisis capacity strategy. This paper provides a review of decontamination procedures in the published literature and calls attention to their benefits and limitations. In most cases, the data are limited to a few FFR models and a limited number of decontamination cycles. Institutions planning to implement a decontamination method must understand its limitations in terms of the degree of inactivation of the intended microorganisms and the treatment's effects on the fit and filtration of the device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Bergman
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, 626 Cochrans Mill Road, Pittsburgh, PA 15236
| | - Edward M. Fisher
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, 626 Cochrans Mill Road, Pittsburgh, PA 15236
| | - Brian K. Heimbuch
- Applied Research Associates, 430 W 5th St, Suite 700, Panama City, FL 32401
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Peytremann A, Senn N, Mueller Y. Infection prevention and control measures in practices of the Swiss sentinel network during seasonal influenza epidemics. J Hosp Infect 2020; 106:786-792. [PMID: 32891687 PMCID: PMC7470729 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Background There are limited data on the transmission of influenza in the context of primary care practices, despite the fact that a significant proportion of the population consult their primary care physician for an influenza-like illness every year. Aim To describe the use of influenza prevention and control methods in private practices of the Swiss sentinel network. Methods This online cross-sectional survey collected data about infection prevention and control measures in the 166 private practices of the Swiss sentinel surveillance network during the 2018–2019 influenza season. Questions pertained to the practice setting, infection prevention and control recommendations, influenza vaccination status of the physicians and their staff, adhesion to hand hygiene, and mask wearing. Findings Among the 122 practices that answered (response rate 73.5%), 90.2% of the responding physicians had been vaccinated themselves, and 46.7% (56/120) estimated that their staff vaccination coverage was >60%, although it was offered to employees in all practices. Most practices (N=68, 55.7%) had no specific recommendations for their staff concerning mask wearing. Most physicians reported washing or disinfecting their hands before examining a patient (N=91, 74.6%), after examination (N=110, 90.2%) and before a medical procedure (N=112, 91.8%). However, this rate was lower for arrival at the practice (N=78, 63.9%) and leaving the practice (N=83, 68.0%). Conclusion Most physicians in the Swiss sentinel surveillance network have been vaccinated themselves. However, the vaccination rates among their staff are low, despite vaccine availability. Hand hygiene measures were also suboptimal. These results warrant further efforts to implement infection prevention and control measures in the ambulatory setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Peytremann
- Faculty of Medicine and Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Department of Family Medicine, Unisanté - University Centre for Primary Care and Public Health, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - N Senn
- Department of Family Medicine, Unisanté - University Centre for Primary Care and Public Health, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Y Mueller
- Department of Family Medicine, Unisanté - University Centre for Primary Care and Public Health, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Lindsley WG, Blachere FM, Burton NC, Christensen B, Estill CF, Fisher EM, Martin SB, Mead KR, Noti JD, Seaton M. COVID-19 and the Workplace: Research Questions for the Aerosol Science Community. AEROSOL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR AEROSOL RESEARCH 2020; 54:1117-1123. [PMID: 35924028 PMCID: PMC9345404 DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2020.1796921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- William G. Lindsley
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Francoise M. Blachere
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Nancy C. Burton
- Division of Field Studies & Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Cherie F. Estill
- Division of Field Studies & Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Edward M. Fisher
- National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stephen B. Martin
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Kenneth R. Mead
- Division of Field Studies & Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - John D. Noti
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Melissa Seaton
- Division of Science Integration, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Yip L, Finn M, Granados A, Prost K, McGeer A, Gubbay JB, Scott J, Mubareka S. Influenza virus RNA recovered from droplets and droplet nuclei emitted by adults in an acute care setting. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2019; 16:341-348. [PMID: 31050610 PMCID: PMC7157967 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2019.1591626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Transmission in hospital settings of seasonal influenza viruses and novel agents such as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is well-described but poorly understood. The characterization of potentially infectious bio-aerosols in the healthcare setting remains an important yet ill-defined factor in the transmission of respiratory viruses. Empiric data describing the distribution of bio-aerosols enable discernment of potential exposure risk to respiratory viruses. We sought to determine the distribution of influenza virus RNA emitted into the air by participants with laboratory-confirmed influenza, and whether these emissions had the potential to reach healthcare workers' breathing zones. Two-stage cyclone bio-aerosol samplers from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health were placed 0.5-1.0 m (near field) and 2.1-2.5 m (far field) from infected patient participants, as well as in the corridor immediately outside their rooms. In addition, healthcare worker participants providing care to infected participants were recruited to wear a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) filter cassette in their breathing zones. Viral RNA was detected from the air emitted by 37.5% of the 16 participants infected with influenza virus and distributed both in near and far fields and in all tested particle sizes (<1 µm, 1-4 µm, and >4 µm). Viral RNA was recovered in droplet nuclei and beyond 1 m from naturally-infected participants in the healthcare setting and from the breathing zone of one healthcare worker. There was no correlation between patient participant nasal viral load and recovery of viral RNA from the air, and we did not identify any significant association between RNA detection from the air and patient demographics or clinical presentation. A more substantial study is required to identify patient determinants of virus emission into the air and delineate implications for evidence-based policy for prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Yip
- Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mairead Finn
- Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrea Granados
- Public Health Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Karren Prost
- Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Allison McGeer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Sinai Health System, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jonathan B. Gubbay
- Public Health Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - James Scott
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samira Mubareka
- Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- CONTACT Samira Mubareka 2075 Bayview Ave suite B103, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
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Rule AM, Apau O, Ahrenholz SH, Brueck SE, Lindsley WG, de Perio MA, Noti JD, Shaffer RE, Rothman R, Grigorovitch A, Noorbakhsh B, Beezhold DH, Yorio PL, Perl TM, Fisher EM. Healthcare personnel exposure in an emergency department during influenza season. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203223. [PMID: 30169507 PMCID: PMC6118374 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Healthcare personnel are at high risk for exposure to influenza by direct and indirect contact, droplets and aerosols, and by aerosol generating procedures. Information on air and surface influenza contamination is needed to assist in developing guidance for proper prevention and control strategies. To understand the vulnerabilities of healthcare personnel, we measured influenza in the breathing zone of healthcare personnel, in air and on surfaces within a healthcare setting, and on filtering facepiece respirators worn by healthcare personnel when conducting patient care. Methods Thirty participants were recruited from an adult emergency department during the 2015 influenza season. Participants wore personal bioaerosol samplers for six hours of their work shift, submitted used filtering facepiece respirators and medical masks and completed questionnaires to assess frequency and types of interactions with potentially infected patients. Room air samples were collected using bioaerosol samplers, and surface swabs were collected from high-contact surfaces within the adult emergency department. Personal and room bioaerosol samples, surface swabs, and filtering facepiece respirators were analyzed for influenza A by polymerase chain reaction. Results Influenza was identified in 42% (53/125) of personal bioaerosol samples, 43% (28/ 96) of room bioaerosol samples, 76% (23/30) of pooled surface samples, and 25% (3/12) of the filtering facepiece respirators analyzed. Influenza copy numbers were greater in personal bioaerosol samples (17 to 631 copies) compared to room bioaerosol samples (16 to 323 copies). Regression analysis suggested that the amount of influenza in personal samples was approximately 2.3 times the amount in room samples (Wald χ2 = 16.21, p<0.001). Conclusions Healthcare personnel may encounter increased concentrations of influenza virus when in close proximity to patients. Occupations that require contact with patients are at an increased risk for influenza exposure, which may occur throughout the influenza season. Filtering facepiece respirators may become contaminated with influenza when used during patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M. Rule
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Otis Apau
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Steven H. Ahrenholz
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies (DSHEFS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Scott E. Brueck
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies (DSHEFS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - William G. Lindsley
- Health Effects Laboratory Division (HELD, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
| | - Marie A. de Perio
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies (DSHEFS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - John D. Noti
- Health Effects Laboratory Division (HELD, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
| | - Ronald E. Shaffer
- National Personal Protective Technology Lab (NPPTL), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Richard Rothman
- Johns Hopkins Hospital, Adult Emergency Department, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alina Grigorovitch
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bahar Noorbakhsh
- Health Effects Laboratory Division (HELD, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
| | - Donald H. Beezhold
- Health Effects Laboratory Division (HELD, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
| | - Patrick L. Yorio
- National Personal Protective Technology Lab (NPPTL), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Trish M. Perl
- Division of Infectious Diseases, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Edward M. Fisher
- National Personal Protective Technology Lab (NPPTL), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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