1
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Mulligan RJ, Magaj MM, Digilio L, Redemann S, Yap CC, Winckler B. Collapse of late endosomal pH elicits a rapid Rab7 response via the V-ATPase and RILP. J Cell Sci 2024; 137:jcs261765. [PMID: 38578235 PMCID: PMC11166203 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.261765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Endosomal-lysosomal trafficking is accompanied by the acidification of endosomal compartments by the H+-V-ATPase to reach low lysosomal pH. Disruption of the correct pH impairs lysosomal function and the balance of protein synthesis and degradation (proteostasis). Here, we treated mammalian cells with the small dipeptide LLOMe, which is known to permeabilize lysosomal membranes, and find that LLOMe also impacts late endosomes (LEs) by neutralizing their pH without causing membrane permeabilization. We show that LLOMe leads to hyperactivation of Rab7 (herein referring to Rab7a), and disruption of tubulation and mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CI-M6PR; also known as IGF2R) recycling on pH-neutralized LEs. pH neutralization (NH4Cl) and expression of Rab7 hyperactive mutants alone can both phenocopy the alterations in tubulation and CI-M6PR trafficking. Mechanistically, pH neutralization increases the assembly of the V1G1 subunit (encoded by ATP6V1G1) of the V-ATPase on endosomal membranes, which stabilizes GTP-bound Rab7 via RILP, a known interactor of Rab7 and V1G1. We propose a novel pathway by which V-ATPase and RILP modulate LE pH and Rab7 activation in concert. This pathway might broadly contribute to pH control during physiologic endosomal maturation or starvation and during pathologic pH neutralization, which occurs via lysosomotropic compounds and in disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Mulligan
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
- Cell and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Magdalena M. Magaj
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
- Cell and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Laura Digilio
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Stefanie Redemann
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Chan Choo Yap
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Bettina Winckler
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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2
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Duran J, Poolsup S, Allers L, Lemus MR, Cheng Q, Pu J, Salemi M, Phinney B, Jia J. A mechanism that transduces lysosomal damage signals to stress granule formation for cell survival. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.29.587368. [PMID: 38617306 PMCID: PMC11014484 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.29.587368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Lysosomal damage poses a significant threat to cell survival. Our previous work has reported that lysosomal damage induces stress granule (SG) formation. However, the importance of SG formation in determining cell fate and the precise mechanisms through which lysosomal damage triggers SG formation remains unclear. Here, we show that SG formation is initiated via a novel calcium-dependent pathway and plays a protective role in promoting cell survival in response to lysosomal damage. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that during lysosomal damage, ALIX, a calcium-activated protein, transduces lysosomal damage signals by sensing calcium leakage to induce SG formation by controlling the phosphorylation of eIF2α. ALIX modulates eIF2α phosphorylation by regulating the association between PKR and its activator PACT, with galectin-3 exerting a negative effect on this process. We also found this regulatory event of SG formation occur on damaged lysosomes. Collectively, these investigations reveal novel insights into the precise regulation of SG formation triggered by lysosomal damage, and shed light on the interaction between damaged lysosomes and SGs. Importantly, SG formation is significant for promoting cell survival in the physiological context of lysosomal damage inflicted by SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a, adenovirus infection, Malaria hemozoin, proteopathic tau as well as environmental hazard silica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Duran
- Center for Global Health, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
| | - Suttinee Poolsup
- Center for Global Health, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
| | - Lee Allers
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
| | - Monica Rosas Lemus
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
| | - Qiuying Cheng
- Center for Global Health, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
| | - Jing Pu
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
| | - Michelle Salemi
- Proteomics Core Facility, University of California Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Brett Phinney
- Proteomics Core Facility, University of California Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jingyue Jia
- Center for Global Health, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
- Lead Contact
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3
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Deretic V, Duque T, Trosdal E, Paddar M, Javed R, Akepati P. Membrane atg8ylation in Canonical and Noncanonical Autophagy. J Mol Biol 2024:168532. [PMID: 38479594 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2024.168532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Membrane atg8ylation is a homeostatic process responding to membrane remodeling and stress signals. Membranes are atg8ylated by mammalian ATG8 ubiquitin-like proteins through a ubiquitylation-like cascade. A model has recently been put forward which posits that atg8ylation of membranes is conceptually equivalent to ubiquitylation of proteins. Like ubiquitylation, membrane atg8ylation involves E1, E2 and E3 enzymes. The E3 ligases catalyze the final step of atg8ylation of aminophospholipids in membranes. Until recently, the only known E3 ligase for membrane atg8ylation was ATG16L1 in a noncovalent complex with the ATG12-ATG5 conjugate. ATG16L1 was first identified as a factor in canonical autophagy. During canonical autophagy, the ATG16L1-based E3 ligase complex includes WIPI2, which in turn recognizes phosphatidylinositiol 3-phosphate and directs atg8ylation of autophagic phagophores. As an alternative to WIPIs, binding of ATG16L1 to the proton pump V-ATPase guides atg8ylation of endolysosomal and phagosomal membranes in response to lumenal pH changes. Recently, a new E3 complex containing TECPR1 instead of ATG16L1, has been identified that responds to sphingomyelin's presence on the cytofacial side of perturbed endolysosomal membranes. In present review, we cover the principles of membrane atg8ylation, catalog its various presentations, and provide a perspective on the growing repertoire of E3 ligase complexes directing membrane atg8ylation at diverse locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
| | - Thabata Duque
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Einar Trosdal
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Masroor Paddar
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Ruheena Javed
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Prithvi Akepati
- Gastroenterology Division, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, 915 Camino de Salud, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
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4
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Malik AA, Shariq M, Sheikh JA, Zarin S, Ahuja Y, Fayaz H, Alam A, Ehtesham NZ, Hasnain SE. Activation of the lysosomal damage response and selective autophagy: the coordinated actions of galectins, TRIM proteins, and CGAS-STING1 in providing immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Crit Rev Microbiol 2024:1-20. [PMID: 38470107 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2024.2321494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Autophagy is a crucial immune defense mechanism that controls the survival and pathogenesis of M. tb by maintaining cell physiology during stress and pathogen attack. The E3-Ub ligases (PRKN, SMURF1, and NEDD4) and autophagy receptors (SQSTM1, TAX1BP1, CALCOCO2, OPTN, and NBR1) play key roles in this process. Galectins (LGALSs), which bind to sugars and are involved in identifying damaged cell membranes caused by intracellular pathogens such as M. tb, are essential. These include LGALS3, LGALS8, and LGALS9, which respond to endomembrane damage and regulate endomembrane damage caused by toxic chemicals, protein aggregates, and intracellular pathogens, including M. tb. They also activate selective autophagy and de novo endolysosome biogenesis. LGALS3, LGALS9, and LGALS8 interact with various components to activate autophagy and repair damage, while CGAS-STING1 plays a critical role in providing immunity against M. tb by activating selective autophagy and producing type I IFNs with antimycobacterial functions. STING1 activates cGAMP-dependent autophagy which provides immunity against various pathogens. Additionally, cytoplasmic surveillance pathways activated by ds-DNA, such as inflammasomes mediated by NLRP3 and AIM2 complexes, control M. tb. Modulation of E3-Ub ligases with small regulatory molecules of LGALSs and TRIM proteins could be a novel host-based therapeutic approach for controlling TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asrar Ahmad Malik
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Mohd Shariq
- ICMR-National Institute of Pathology, New Delhi, India
| | - Javaid Ahmad Sheikh
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Sheeba Zarin
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Interdisciplinary Sciences and Technology, New Delhi, India
| | - Yashika Ahuja
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Haleema Fayaz
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Anwar Alam
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Science and Engineering Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
| | - Nasreen Z Ehtesham
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Seyed E Hasnain
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
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5
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Shariq M, Khan MF, Raj R, Ahsan N, Kumar P. PRKAA2, MTOR, and TFEB in the regulation of lysosomal damage response and autophagy. J Mol Med (Berl) 2024; 102:287-311. [PMID: 38183492 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-023-02411-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Lysosomes function as critical signaling hubs that govern essential enzyme complexes. LGALS proteins (LGALS3, LGALS8, and LGALS9) are integral to the endomembrane damage response. If ESCRT fails to rectify damage, LGALS-mediated ubiquitination occurs, recruiting autophagy receptors (CALCOCO2, TRIM16, and SQSTM1) and VCP/p97 complex containing UBXN6, PLAA, and YOD1, initiating selective autophagy. Lysosome replenishment through biogenesis is regulated by TFEB. LGALS3 interacts with TFRC and TRIM16, aiding ESCRT-mediated repair and autophagy-mediated removal of damaged lysosomes. LGALS8 inhibits MTOR and activates TFEB for ATG and lysosomal gene transcription. LGALS9 inhibits USP9X, activates PRKAA2, MAP3K7, ubiquitination, and autophagy. Conjugation of ATG8 to single membranes (CASM) initiates damage repair mediated by ATP6V1A, ATG16L1, ATG12, ATG5, ATG3, and TECPR1. ATG8ylation or CASM activates the MERIT system (ESCRT-mediated repair, autophagy-mediated clearance, MCOLN1 activation, Ca2+ release, RRAG-GTPase regulation, MTOR modulation, TFEB activation, and activation of GTPase IRGM). Annexins ANAX1 and ANAX2 aid damage repair. Stress granules stabilize damaged membranes, recruiting FLCN-FNIP1/2, G3BP1, and NUFIP1 to inhibit MTOR and activate TFEB. Lysosomes coordinate the synergistic response to endomembrane damage and are vital for innate and adaptive immunity. Future research should unveil the collaborative actions of ATG proteins, LGALSs, TRIMs, autophagy receptors, and lysosomal proteins in lysosomal damage response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Shariq
- Quantlase Imaging Laboratory, Quantlase Lab LLC, Unit 1-8, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Mohammad Firoz Khan
- Quantlase Imaging Laboratory, Quantlase Lab LLC, Unit 1-8, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Reshmi Raj
- Quantlase Imaging Laboratory, Quantlase Lab LLC, Unit 1-8, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Nuzhat Ahsan
- Quantlase Imaging Laboratory, Quantlase Lab LLC, Unit 1-8, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Pramod Kumar
- Quantlase Imaging Laboratory, Quantlase Lab LLC, Unit 1-8, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UAE
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6
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Mulligan R, Magaj M, Digilio L, Redemann S, Yap C, Winckler B. Collapse of late endosomal pH elicits a rapid Rab7 response via V-ATPase and RILP. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.24.563658. [PMID: 37961579 PMCID: PMC10634777 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.24.563658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Endosomal-lysosomal trafficking is accompanied by the acidification of endosomal compartments by the H+-V-ATPase to reach low lysosomal pH. Disruption of proper pH impairs lysosomal function and the balance of protein synthesis and degradation (proteostasis). We used the small dipeptide LLOMe, which is known to permeabilize lysosomal membranes, and find that LLOMe also impacts late endosomes (LEs) by neutralizing their pH without causing membrane permeabilization. We show that LLOMe leads to hyper-activation of Rab7 and disruption of tubulation and mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CI-M6PR) recycling on pH-neutralized LEs. Either pH neutralization (NH4Cl) or Rab7 hyper-active mutants alone can phenocopy the alterations in tubulation and CI-M6PR trafficking. Mechanistically, pH neutralization increases the assembly of the V1G1 subunit of the V-ATPase on endosomal membranes, which stabilizes GTP-bound Rab7 via RILP, a known interactor of Rab7 and V1G1. We propose a novel pathway by which V-ATPase and RILP modulate LE pH and Rab7 activation in concert. This pathway might broadly contribute to pH control during physiologic endosomal maturation or starvation and during pathologic pH neutralization, which occurs via lysosomotropic compounds or in disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- R.J. Mulligan
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
- Cell and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - M.M. Magaj
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville VA
- Cell and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - L. Digilio
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - S. Redemann
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville VA
- Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - C.C. Yap
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - B Winckler
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
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7
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Santra S, Nayak I, Paladhi A, Das D, Banerjee A. Estimates of differential toxin expression governing heterogeneous intracellular lifespans of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Cell Sci 2024; 137:jcs260891. [PMID: 38411297 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.260891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Following invasion of the host cell, pore-forming toxins secreted by pathogens compromise vacuole integrity and expose the microbe to diverse intracellular defence mechanisms. However, the quantitative correlation between toxin expression levels and consequent pore dynamics, fostering the intracellular life of pathogens, remains largely unexplored. In this study, using Streptococcus pneumoniae and its secreted pore-forming toxin pneumolysin (Ply) as a model system, we explored various facets of host-pathogen interactions in the host cytosol. Using time-lapse fluorescence imaging, we monitored pore formation dynamics and lifespans of different pneumococcal subpopulations inside host cells. Based on experimental histograms of various event timescales such as pore formation time, vacuolar death or cytosolic escape time and total degradation time, we developed a mathematical model based on first-passage processes that could correlate the event timescales to intravacuolar toxin accumulation. This allowed us to estimate Ply production rate, burst size and threshold Ply quantities that trigger these outcomes. Collectively, we present a general method that illustrates a correlation between toxin expression levels and pore dynamics, dictating intracellular lifespans of pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Santra
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra, India
| | - Indrani Nayak
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra, India
| | - Ankush Paladhi
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra, India
| | - Dibyendu Das
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra, India
| | - Anirban Banerjee
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra, India
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8
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Zheng L, Xia J, Ge P, Meng Y, Li W, Li M, Wang M, Song C, Fan Y, Zhou Y. The interrelation of galectins and autophagy. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 120:110336. [PMID: 37262957 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a vital physiological process that maintains intracellular homeostasis by removing damaged organelles and senescent or misfolded molecules. However, excessive autophagy results in cell death and apoptosis, which will lead to a variety of diseases. Galectins are a type of animal lectin that binds to β-galactosides and can bind to the cell surface or extracellular matrix glycans, affecting a variety of immune processes in vivo and being linked to the development of many diseases. In many cases, galectins and autophagy both play important regulatory roles in the cellular life course, yet our understanding of the relationship between them is still incomplete. Galectins and autophagy may share common etiological cofactors for some diseases. Hence, we summarize the relationship between galectins and autophagy, aiming to draw attention to the existence of multiple associations between galectins and autophagy in a variety of physiological and pathological processes, which provide new ideas for etiological diagnosis, drug development, and therapeutic targets for related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lujuan Zheng
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Jing Xia
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Pengyu Ge
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Yuhan Meng
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Weili Li
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Mingming Li
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Min Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Chengcheng Song
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Yuying Fan
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
| | - Yifa Zhou
- Engineering Research Center of Glycoconjugates of Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology of Changbai Mountain Natural Drugs, School of Life Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China.
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9
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Zuo H, Chen C, Sa Y. Therapeutic potential of autophagy in immunity and inflammation: current and future perspectives. Pharmacol Rep 2023; 75:499-510. [PMID: 37119445 PMCID: PMC10148586 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00486-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is recognized as a lysosomal degradation pathway important for cellular and organismal homeostasis. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that autophagy is a paradoxical mechanism that regulates homeostasis and prevents stress under physiological and pathological conditions. Nevertheless, how autophagy is implicated in immune responses remains unclear. It is well established that autophagy bridges innate and adaptive immunity, while autophagic dysfunction is closely related to infection, inflammation, neurodegeneration, and tumorigenesis. Therefore, autophagy has attracted great attention from fundamental and translational fields due to its crucial role in inflammation and immunity. Inflammation is involved in the development and progression of various human diseases, and as a result, autophagy might be a potential target to prevent and treat inflammatory diseases. Nevertheless, insufficient autophagy might cause cell death, perpetrate inflammation, and trigger hereditary unsteadiness. Hence, targeting autophagy is a promising disease prevention and treatment strategy. To accomplish this safely, we should thoroughly understand the basic aspects of how autophagy works. Herein, we systematically summarized the correlation between autophagy and inflammation and its implication for human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zuo
- Department of Pharmacology, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650032, Yunnan Province, China.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650032, Yunnan Province, China.
| | - Cheng Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650032, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Yalian Sa
- Institute of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences (Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Virology), The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650032, Yunnan, China.
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10
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Das KK, Brown JW. 3'-sulfated Lewis A/C: An oncofetal epitope associated with metaplastic and oncogenic plasticity of the gastrointestinal foregut. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1089028. [PMID: 36866273 PMCID: PMC9971977 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1089028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Metaplasia, dysplasia, and cancer arise from normal epithelia via a plastic cellular transformation, typically in the setting of chronic inflammation. Such transformations are the focus of numerous studies that strive to identify the changes in RNA/Protein expression that drive such plasticity along with the contributions from the mesenchyme and immune cells. However, despite being widely utilized clinically as biomarkers for such transitions, the role of glycosylation epitopes is understudied in this context. Here, we explore 3'-Sulfo-Lewis A/C, a clinically validated biomarker for high-risk metaplasia and cancer throughout the gastrointestinal foregut: esophagus, stomach, and pancreas. We discuss the clinical correlation of sulfomucin expression with metaplastic and oncogenic transformation, as well as its synthesis, intracellular and extracellular receptors and suggest potential roles for 3'-Sulfo-Lewis A/C in contributing to and maintaining these malignant cellular transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koushik K Das
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Jeffrey W Brown
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
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11
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Glycobiology of cellular expiry: Decrypting the role of glycan-lectin regulatory complex and therapeutic strategies focusing on cancer. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 207:115367. [PMID: 36481348 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Often the outer leaflets of living cells bear a coat of glycosylated proteins, which primarily regulates cellular processes. Glycosylation of such proteins occurs as part of their post-translational modification. Within the endoplasmic reticulum, glycosylation enables the attachment of specific oligosaccharide moieties such as, 'glycan' to the transmembrane receptor proteins which confers precise biological information for governing the cell fate. The nature and degree of glycosylation of cell surface receptors are regulated by a bunch of glycosyl transferases and glycosidases which fine-tune attachment or detachment of glycan moieties. In classical death receptors, upregulation of glycosylation by glycosyl transferases is capable of inducing cell death in T cells, tumor cells, etc. Thus, any deregulated alternation at surface glycosylation of these death receptors can result in life-threatening disorder like cancer. In addition, transmembrane glycoproteins and lectin receptors can transduce intracellular signals for cell death execution. Exogenous interaction of lectins with glycan containing death receptors signals for cell death initiation by modulating downstream signalings. Subsequently, endogenous glycan-lectin interplay aids in the customization and implementation of the cell death program. Lastly, the glycan-lectin recognition system dictates the removal of apoptotic cells by sending accurate signals to the extracellular milieu. Since glycosylation has proven to be a biomarker of cellular death and disease progression; glycans serve as specific therapeutic targets of cancers. In this context, we are reviewing the molecular mechanisms of the glycan-lectin regulatory network as an integral part of cell death machinery in cancer to target them for successful therapeutic and clinical approaches.
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12
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Jia J, Wang F, Bhujabal Z, Peters R, Mudd M, Duque T, Allers L, Javed R, Salemi M, Behrends C, Phinney B, Johansen T, Deretic V. Stress granules and mTOR are regulated by membrane atg8ylation during lysosomal damage. J Cell Biol 2022; 221:e202207091. [PMID: 36179369 PMCID: PMC9533235 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202207091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
We report that lysosomal damage is a hitherto unknown inducer of stress granule (SG) formation and that the process termed membrane atg8ylation coordinates SG formation with mTOR inactivation during lysosomal stress. SGs were induced by lysosome-damaging agents including SARS-CoV-2ORF3a, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and proteopathic tau. During damage, mammalian ATG8s directly interacted with the core SG proteins NUFIP2 and G3BP1. Atg8ylation was needed for their recruitment to damaged lysosomes independently of SG condensates whereupon NUFIP2 contributed to mTOR inactivation via the Ragulator-RagA/B complex. Thus, cells employ membrane atg8ylation to control and coordinate SG and mTOR responses to lysosomal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyue Jia
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Fulong Wang
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Zambarlal Bhujabal
- Autophagy Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ryan Peters
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Michal Mudd
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Thabata Duque
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Lee Allers
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Ruheena Javed
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Michelle Salemi
- Proteomics Core Facility, University of California Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA
| | - Christian Behrends
- Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Brett Phinney
- Proteomics Core Facility, University of California Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA
| | - Terje Johansen
- Autophagy Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
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13
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Hoyer MJ, Swarup S, Harper JW. Mechanisms Controlling Selective Elimination of Damaged Lysosomes. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 29:100590. [PMID: 36713230 PMCID: PMC9878802 DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2022.100590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Lysosomes are subjected to physiological and patho-physiological insults over the course of their life cycle and are accordingly repaired or recycled. Lysophagy, the selective degradation of lysosomes via autophagy, occurs upon unrepairable lysosomal membrane rupture; galectins bind to glycosylated macromolecules in the lysosome lumen, orchestrating a series of cellular responses to promote autophagic recycling of damaged lysosomes and transcriptional upregulation of lysosomal genes. Damaged lysosomes are ubiquitylated, resulting in the recruitment of ubiquitin-binding autophagy receptors, which promote assembly of an autophagosome around damaged lysosomes for delivery to healthy lysosomes for degradation. Here, we review the current state of our understanding of mechanisms used to mark and eliminate damaged lysosomes, and discuss the complexities of galectin function and ubiquitin-chain linkage types. Finally, we discuss the limitations of available data and challenges with the goal of understanding the mechanistic basis of key steps in lysophagic flux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa J. Hoyer
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Ave, Boston MA 02115, USA,Aligning Science Across Parkinson’s (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Sharan Swarup
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Ave, Boston MA 02115, USA
| | - J. Wade Harper
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Ave, Boston MA 02115, USA,Aligning Science Across Parkinson’s (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
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14
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Deretic V, Lazarou M. A guide to membrane atg8ylation and autophagy with reflections on immunity. J Cell Biol 2022; 221:e202203083. [PMID: 35699692 PMCID: PMC9202678 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202203083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of membrane atg8ylation, defined herein as the conjugation of the ATG8 family of ubiquitin-like proteins to membrane lipids, is beginning to be appreciated in its broader manifestations, mechanisms, and functions. Classically, membrane atg8ylation with LC3B, one of six mammalian ATG8 family proteins, has been viewed as the hallmark of canonical autophagy, entailing the formation of characteristic double membranes in the cytoplasm. However, ATG8s are now well described as being conjugated to single membranes and, most recently, proteins. Here we propose that the atg8ylation is coopted by multiple downstream processes, one of which is canonical autophagy. We elaborate on these biological outputs, which impact metabolism, quality control, and immunity, emphasizing the context of inflammation and immunological effects. In conclusion, we propose that atg8ylation is a modification akin to ubiquitylation, and that it is utilized by different systems participating in membrane stress responses and membrane remodeling activities encompassing autophagy and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Michael Lazarou
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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15
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Childs E, Henry CM, Canton J, Reis e Sousa C. Maintenance and loss of endocytic organelle integrity: mechanisms and implications for antigen cross-presentation. Open Biol 2021; 11:210194. [PMID: 34753318 PMCID: PMC8580422 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.210194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The membranes of endosomes, phagosomes and macropinosomes can become damaged by the physical properties of internalized cargo, by active pathogenic invasion or by cellular processes, including endocytic maturation. Loss of membrane integrity is often deleterious and is, therefore, prevented by mitigation and repair mechanisms. However, it can occasionally be beneficial and actively induced by cells. Here, we summarize the mechanisms by which cells, in particular phagocytes, try to prevent membrane damage and how, when this fails, they repair or destroy damaged endocytic organelles. We also detail how one type of phagocyte, the dendritic cell, can deliberately trigger localized damage to endocytic organelles to allow for major histocompatibility complex class I presentation of exogenous antigens and initiation of CD8+ T-cell responses to viruses and tumours. Our review highlights mechanisms for the regulation of endocytic organelle membrane integrity at the intersection of cell biology and immunology that could be co-opted for improving vaccination and intracellular drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Childs
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Conor M. Henry
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Johnathan Canton
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada,Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Caetano Reis e Sousa
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
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16
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Glycans in autophagy, endocytosis and lysosomal functions. Glycoconj J 2021; 38:625-647. [PMID: 34390447 PMCID: PMC8497297 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-021-10007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glycans have been shown to function as versatile molecular signals in cells. This prompted us to look at their roles in endocytosis, endolysosomal system and autophagy. We start by introducing the cell biological aspects of these pathways, the concept of the sugar code, and provide an overview on the role of glycans in the targeting of lysosomal proteins and in lysosomal functions. Moreover, we review evidence on the regulation of endocytosis and autophagy by glycans. Finally, we discuss the emerging concept that cytosolic exposure of luminal glycans, and their detection by endogenous lectins, provides a mechanism for the surveillance of the integrity of the endolysosomal compartments, and serves their eventual repair or disposal.
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17
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Deretic V, Kroemer G. Autophagy in metabolism and quality control: opposing, complementary or interlinked functions? Autophagy 2021; 18:283-292. [PMID: 34036900 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2021.1933742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The sensu stricto autophagy, macroautophagy, is considered to be both a metabolic process as well as a bona fide quality control process. The question as to how these two aspects of autophagy are coordinated and whether and why they overlap has implications for fundamental aspects, pathophysiological effects, and pharmacological manipulation of autophagy. At the top of the regulatory cascade controlling autophagy are master regulators of cellular metabolism, such as MTOR and AMPK, which render the system responsive to amino acid and glucose starvation. At the other end exists a variety of specific autophagy receptors, engaged in the selective removal of a diverse array of intracellular targets, from protein aggregates/condensates to whole organelles such as mitochondria, ER, peroxisomes, lysosomes and lipid droplets. Are the roles of autophagy in metabolism and quality control mutually exclusive, independent or interlocked? How are priorities established? What are the molecular links between both phenomena? This article will provide a starting point to formulate these questions, the responses to which should be taken into consideration in future autophagy-based interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe labellisée par la Ligue contre le cancer, Université de Paris, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U1138, Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France.,Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France.,Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France.,Suzhou Institute for Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Suzhou, China.,Karolinska Institute, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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18
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Deretic V. Autophagy in inflammation, infection, and immunometabolism. Immunity 2021; 54:437-453. [PMID: 33691134 PMCID: PMC8026106 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 311] [Impact Index Per Article: 103.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a quality-control, metabolic, and innate immunity process. Normative autophagy affects many cell types, including hematopoietic as well as non-hematopoietic, and promotes health in model organisms and humans. When autophagy is perturbed, this has repercussions on diseases with inflammatory components, including infections, autoimmunity and cancer, metabolic disorders, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular and liver diseases. As a cytoplasmic degradative pathway, autophagy protects from exogenous hazards, including infection, and from endogenous sources of inflammation, including molecular aggregates and damaged organelles. The focus of this review is on the role of autophagy in inflammation, including type I interferon responses and inflammasome outputs, from molecules to immune cells. A special emphasis is given to the intersections of autophagy with innate immunity, immunometabolism, and functions of organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes that act as innate immunity and immunometabolic signaling platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism (AIM) Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
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19
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Paik S, Jo EK. An Interplay Between Autophagy and Immunometabolism for Host Defense Against Mycobacterial Infection. Front Immunol 2020; 11:603951. [PMID: 33262773 PMCID: PMC7688515 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.603951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy, an intracellular catabolic pathway featuring lysosomal degradation, is a central component of the host immune defense against various infections including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the pathogen that causes tuberculosis. Mtb can evade the autophagic defense and drive immunometabolic remodeling of host phagocytes. Co-regulation of the autophagic and metabolic pathways may play a pivotal role in shaping the innate immune defense and inflammation during Mtb infection. Two principal metabolic sensors, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase, function together to control the autophagy and immunometabolism that coordinate the anti-mycobacterial immune defense. Here, we discuss our current understanding of the interplay between autophagy and immunometabolism in terms of combating intracellular Mtb, and how AMPK-mTOR signaling regulates antibacterial autophagy in terms of Mtb infection. We describe several autophagy-targeting agents that promote host antimicrobial defenses by regulating the AMPK-mTOR axis. A better understanding of the crosstalk between immunometabolism and autophagy, both of which are involved in host defense, is crucial for the development of innovative targeted therapies for tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungwha Paik
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Eun-Kyeong Jo
- Department of Microbiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea
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