Comparing self-report and mental chronometry measures of motor imagery ability

Development and validation of an open-source hand laterality judgement task for in-person and online studies

The Hand Laterality Judgement Task (HLJT) is considered a measure of the ability to manipulate motor images. The 'biomechanical constraints' effect (longer reaction times for hand rotations towards anatomically difficult versus biomechanically easier movements) is considered the behavioural hallmark indicating motor imagery is being used. Previous work has used diverse HLJT paradigms, and there is no standardized procedure for the task. We developed an open-source, freely available version of the HLJT in PsychoPy2, which needs no programming skills and is highly customisable. Some studies suggest responding to the HLJT with the hands may interfere with performance, which would limit practical application of the task. We examined this potential issue using in-person and online versions. For the in-person version, 40 right-footed/handed individuals performed the HLJT with their feet or bimanually (N = 20 each). For the online version, 60 right-handed individuals performed the task bimanually or unimanually (N = 20 each). Bayesian mixed-effect analyses quantified the evidence for and against equivalence within and between the in-person and online versions. Both versions replicated previously described behavioural phenomena, including effects of angle, hand view, and the 'biomechanical constraints' effect. While responding with different effectors modified overall reaction times, it did not interact with other factors analysed, and did not affect accuracy or the 'biomechanical constraints' effect. There was also evidence for equivalence between in-person and online bimanual groups for all measures. We conclude that this open-source, standardized HLJT protocol (available at https://osf.io/8h7ec/) can reliably detect previously identified effects and works equally well in-person or online.

Let's do it: Response times in Mental Paper Folding and its execution

Action imagery is the ability to mentally simulate the execution of an action without physically performing it. Action imagery is assumed to rely at least partly on similar mechanisms as action execution. Therefore, we expected that imagery and execution durations would be constrained by the number of folds in a Paper Folding Task. Analogously, individual differences in execution durations were expected to be reflected in imagery durations. Twenty-eight participants performed two imagery conditions (computer vs. paper) and one execution condition (paper) where two-dimensional grids of a three-dimensional cube were (mentally) folded to determine whether two selected edges overlapped or not. As expected, imagery performance and execution performance were strongly correlated and decreased with the number of folds. Further, the number of folds influenced imagery durations even more than execution durations. This may be due to the additional cognitive load in imagery that emerges when tracking the folds to follow up with the next ones. The results indicate that Mental Paper Folding predominantly involves dynamic visual representations that are not functionally associated with one's own movements as in action imagery.

Muscle relaxation enhances motor imagery capacity in people with anxiety: A randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Motor imagery is the mental representation of a movement without physical execution. When motor imagery is performed to enhance motor learning and performance, participants must reach a temporal congruence between the imagined and actual movement execution. Identifying factors that can influence this capacity could enhance the effectiveness of motor imagery programs. Anxiety frequently occurs in sports and rehabilitation where motor imagery is a relevant technique. It is associated with increased muscle tension and impairs the memory processes involved in motor imagery. This study aimed to determine whether muscle relaxation before motor imagery practice can influence motor imagery capacity and temporal congruence in anxious individuals, during internal and external visual imagery, and kinesthetic imagery.

METHODS

A randomized clinical trial was conducted in 55 young adults (20.3±2.8 years; 40 females; 15 males) with anxiety (percentile ≥75% on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory). 26 participants were assigned to the relaxation group and 29 to the control group through stratified randomization. Motor imagery capacity and temporal congruence were assessed using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 at 2 points (t1 and t2). Between t1 and t2, participants in the relaxation group underwent abbreviated progressive relaxation training. Electrodermal activity and heart rate variability were recorded to evaluate the relaxation effect.

RESULTS

Data revealed a significant improvement in motor imagery capacity in the relaxation group, while the temporal congruence was not impaired in both groups.

CONCLUSION

Pre-motor imagery muscle relaxation might improve motor imagery capacity in anxious individuals. This finding may contribute to better tailor motor imagery programs and to adjust motor imagery guidelines and recommendations for people with anxiety. This study has been registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04973956).

Evidence for the dependence of visual and kinesthetic motor imagery on isolated visual and motor practice

Motor imagery (MI) is a cognitive process believed to rely on the representation developed through experience. The equivalence between MI and execution has been questioned and the relationship between experience types and MI is unclear. We tested how observational and physical practice of hand gesture sequences impacted visual and kinesthetic MI and transfer to the unpracticed effector. Three groups (n = 22/gp.); no-vision physical practice, observational practice and no-practice control, practiced and visually and kinesthetically imagined performing the sequences. MI was assessed using mental chronometry, a movement time (MT) congruency measure and subjective ratings. Physical practice improved kinesthetic MI ratings and observational practice improved visual MI ratings. Contrary to predictions, physical practice did not enhance timing congruency. Imagined MTs were longer in transfer after physical practice, suggesting MI was not based on the same representation. These data question ideas of equivalence, with poor temporal matching after no-vision physical practice.

Exploring temporal congruence in motor imagery and movement execution in non-specific chronic low back pain

Chronic non-specific low back pain (NSCLBP) is linked to sensorimotor dysfunctions and altered motor planning, likely due to neuroplastic changes. Motor imagery (MI) and movement execution share neural pathways, but the relationship between imagined and executed movements in NSCLBP patients remains underexplored. This study aimed to assess the temporal congruence between imagined and executed movements in NSCLBP sufferers, with secondary goals of investigating group differences in movement chronometry, psychological well-being, and disability, as well as possible correlations among these factors. Fifty-six participants, including 28 NSCLBP patients and 28 asymptomatic subjects (AS), performed lumbar flexion and Timed Up and Go (TUG) tasks. NSCLBP patients showed significant temporal incongruence in both tasks, executing movements more slowly than imagined, whereas AS displayed incongruence only in the TUG task. NSCLBP patients also took longer to imagine and execute lumbar flexion movements compared to AS, with correlations observed between execution delays, higher disability, and greater fear of movement. The findings highlight a lack of temporal congruence in NSCLBP patients, especially in lumbar flexion, emphasizing the complex relationship between chronic pain, motor ability, and psychological factors. These results suggest that integrated treatment approaches addressing cognitive and emotional aspects are crucial for managing NSCLBP.

Acute Stress Does Not Affect Motor Imagery Ability in Young, Healthy Participants: A Randomized Trial

Motor imagery (MI) is the mental representation of a movement without its execution. It activates internal representations of the movement without external stimulus through different memory-related processes. Although acute stress is frequent in the population and affects supraspinal structures essential for memory functionality, it is still unknown how that stress affects MI capacity and temporal congruence (TC) between execution and movement imagination. This study aimed to discover how acute stress may influence MI capacity and TC in the subscales of internal and external visual imagery and kinesthetic imagery. A double-blind, randomized trial was conducted. Sixty-two young, healthy subjects (mean age = 20.65 [2.54]; 39 females and 23 males) unfamiliar with the assessment and uses of MI were recruited. Participants were assigned by stratified randomization to the stress group or the control group. Stress was induced by the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST), while the control group performed the MAST control protocol. MI capacity and TC were assessed before (t1) and after (t2) MAST stress or control using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3). Electrodermal activity and heart rate variability were further recorded as control variables to assess stress induction. Thirty subjects in the stress group and 26 subjects in the control group were analyzed. No significant group differences were observed when comparing MI capacity or TC in any subscales. These findings suggest that acute stress does not significantly affect MI capacity or TC in young, healthy, non-experienced MI subjects. MI could thus be a relevant helpful technique in stressful situations.

The Role of Interoceptive Sensitivity and Hypnotizability in Motor Imagery

Motor imagery (MI) requires the mental representation of the body, obtained by integrating exteroceptive and interoceptive information. This study aimed to investigate the role of interoceptive sensitivity (IS) in MI performed through visual and kinesthetic modalities by participants with low (lows, N = 26; SHSS: A, M + SD: 1.00 + 1.52), medium (mediums, N = 11; SHSS: A, 6.00 + 0.77) and high hypnotizability scores (highs, N = 16; SHSS:A, 9.75 + 1.24), as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form A. The three groups displayed different MI abilities and IS levels. The efficacy of MI was measured using the chronometric index and self-reported experience, while IS was measured using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) questionnaire. Alpha and beta power spectrum densities (PSDs) were extracted from the EEG signals acquired during baseline, actual movement and visually and kinesthetically imagined movements. The chronometric indices do not reveal significant differences between groups and imagery modalities. The self-report MI efficacy indicates better kinesthetic imagery in highs and mediums than in lows, and no modality difference among lows. The MAIA dimensions sustain the differences in subjective experience and almost all the EEG differences. The latter are slightly different in highs, mediums and lows. This is the first report of the major role played by IS in MI and strongly supports the theory of embodied cognition.

Motor imagery ability of children with duchenne muscular dystrophy: Reliability and validity of kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire-10, and its association with cognitive status

PURPOSE

To investigate validity and reliability of the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire-10 (KVIQ-10) in children with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), to compare the motor imagery (MI) ability with age-matched controls, and to examine the relationship between MI ability and cognitive status.

METHODS

The research involved 38 children who were diagnosed with DMD, as well as 20 healthy controls aged between 7 and 18 years. The KVIQ-10 was assessed for its test-retest reliability, internal consistency, construct and concurrent validity. The Motor Imagery Questionnaire for Children (MIQ-C) was selected as the gold standard test for concurrent validity. Cognitive function was assessed using the Modified Mini Mental Test (MMMT) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA).

RESULTS

KVIQ-10 showed excellent test-retest reliability (ICC>0.90) and high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha>0.70). A moderate-to-strong association was found between KVIQ-10 and MIQ-C subscales (p < 0.001). KVIQ-10 and MIQ-C subscores were statistically lower in the DMD group (p ≤ 0.05). A correlation was found between MoCA and KVIQ-10 in children with DMD (p ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The KVIQ-10 is a reliable and valid measure to assess the MI ability of children with DMD whose imagery ability was determined to be impaired.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER AND URL

NCT05559710 (https://classic.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov/ct2/show/NCT05559710?term=NCT05559710&draw=2&rank=1).

The Development and Evaluation of the Kinesthetic Motor Imagery of Pelvic Floor Muscle Contraction Questionnaire (KMI-PFQ) in Spanish Women

Practitioners have begun using motor imagery (MI) for preventing and treating some pelvic floor disorders. Due to requirements for imagining before performing a MI intervention and because there are few instruments available for assessing this specific ability in the pelvic floor musculature, we sought to develop and test a new MI questionnaire, the Kinesthetic Motor Imagery of Pelvic Floor Muscle Contraction Questionnaire (KMI-PFQ). We focused in this study on the development and analysis of the instrument's factorial structure and internal reliability in a participant sample of 162 healthy Spanish women (M age = 20.1, SD = 2.2 years). We developed and evaluated the KMI-PFQ's psychometric properties, finding it to have good internal consistency, with Cronbach's α = .838, ω coefficient = .839, and an intraclass correlation coefficient = .809, with two factors ("ability" and "mental effort") explaining 58.36% of response variance. The standard error of measurement was 3.58, and the minimal detectable change was 9.92. No floor or ceiling effects were identified. There was also good convergent validity as seen by statistically significant positive correlations between KMI-PFQ scores and the revised-Movement Image Questionnaire and Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire. There were no statistically significant correlations between KMI-PFQ scores and the Orientation to Life Questionnaire. The KMI-PFQ is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring kinesthetic ability to feel/imagine pelvic floor muscle contractions in healthy Spanish women.

Differences in motor imagery abilities in active and sedentary individuals: new insights from backward-walking imagination

Evidence has shown that imagining a complex action, like backward-walking, helps improve the execution of the gesture. Despite this, studies in sport psychology have provided heterogeneous results on the use of motor imagery (MI) to improve performance. We aimed to fill this gap by analyzing how sport experience influences backward-walking MI processes in a sample of young women (n = 41, mean age = 21 ± 2.2) divided into Active and Sedentary. All participants were allocated to two randomized mental chronometric tasks, in which they had first to imagine and then execute forward-walking (FW) and backward-walking (BW). The Isochrony Efficiency measured the difference between imagination and execution times in both conditions (FW and BW). Moreover, we analyzed the ability to vividly imagine FW and BW within various perspectives in both groups through the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ-2). Findings showed that active individuals performed better in the BW imagery task when compared to sedentary ones (F1,39 = 4.98; p = 0.03*), while there were no differences between groups in the FW imagery task (F1,39 = .10; p = 0.75). Further, VMIQ-2 had evidenced that the ability to imagine backward is influenced by perspective used. Specifically, the use of internal visual imagery (IVI) led to worse Isochrony Efficiency (t32,25 = 2.16; p = 0.04*), while the use of kinesthetic imagery (KIN) led to better Isochrony Efficiency (t32,25 =  - 2.34; p = 0.03*). These results suggest a close relation between motor experience and complex motor imagery processes and open new insights for studying these mental processes.

Motor imagery in autism: a systematic review

Introduction

Motor Imagery (MI) is when an individual imagines performing an action without physically executing that action and is thought to involve similar neural processes used for execution of physical movement. As motor coordination difficulties are common in autistic individuals it is possible that these may affect MI ability. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the current knowledge around MI ability in autistic individuals.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted for articles published before September 2023, following PRISMA guidance. Search engines were PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Wiley Online Library and PsyArXiv. Inclusion criteria included: (a) Original peer-reviewed and pre-print publications; (b) Autistic and a non-autistic group (c) Implicit or explicit imagery tasks (d) Behavioral, neurophysiological or self-rating measures, (e) Written in the English language. Exclusion criteria were (a) Articles only about MI or autism (b) Articles where the autism data is not presented separately (c) Articles on action observation, recognition or imitation only (d) Review articles. A narrative synthesis of the evidence was conducted.

Results

Sixteen studies across fourteen articles were included. Tasks were divided into implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious) MI. The implicit tasks used either hand (6) or body (4) rotation tasks. Explicit tasks consisted of perspective taking tasks (3), a questionnaire (1) and explicit instructions to imagine performing a movement (2). A MI strategy was apparent for the hand rotation task in autistic children, although may have been more challenging. Evidence was mixed and inconclusive for the remaining task types due to the varied range of different tasks and, measures conducted and design limitations. Further limitations included a sex bias toward males and the hand rotation task only being conducted in children.

Discussion

There is currently an incomplete understanding of MI ability in autistic individuals. The field would benefit from a battery of fully described implicit and explicit MI tasks, conducted across the same groups of autistic children and adults. Improved knowledge around MI in autistic individuals is important for understanding whether MI techniques may benefit motor coordination in some autistic people.

Guidelines for reporting action simulation studies (GRASS): Proposals to improve reporting of research in motor imagery and action observation

Researchers from multiple disciplines have studied the simulation of actions through motor imagery, action observation, or their combination. Procedures used in these studies vary considerably between research groups, and no standardized approach to reporting experimental protocols has been proposed. This has led to under-reporting of critical details, impairing the assessment, replication, synthesis, and potential clinical translation of effects. We provide an overview of issues related to the reporting of information in action simulation studies, and discuss the benefits of standardized reporting. We propose a series of checklists that identify key details of research protocols to include when reporting action simulation studies. Each checklist comprises A) essential methodological details, B) essential details that are relevant to a specific mode of action simulation, and C) further points that may be useful on a case-by-case basis. We anticipate that the use of these guidelines will improve the understanding, reproduction, and synthesis of studies using action simulation, and enhance the translation of research using motor imagery and action observation to applied and clinical settings.

Motor Imagery and Pain Processing in Patients With Entrapment Neuropathies: A Cross-sectional Study

OBJECTIVES

(1) To assess the ability to generate both kinesthetic and visual motor imagery in participants with carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), compared with asymptomatic participants. (2) To assess the influence of psychophysiological and functional variables in the motor imagery process.

METHODS

Twenty patients with unilateral CTS and 18 pain-free individuals were recruited. An observational case-control study with a nonprobability sample was conducted to assess visual and kinesthetic movement imagery ability and psychophysiological variables in patients with CTS compared with asymptomatic participants in a control group. The trial was conducted in accordance with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology statement.

RESULTS

CTS patients have more difficulties in generating visual motor images compared with asymptomatic individuals ( t =-2.099; P <0.05; d=0.70). They need more time to complete the mental tasks (visual t =-2.424; P <0.05 and kinesthetic t =-2.200; P <0.05). A negative correlation was found between the ability to imagine and functional deficits ( r =-0.569; P =0.021) for the kinesthetic subscale and temporal summation ( r =-0.515; P <0.5). A positive correlation was found between pain pressure threshold homolateral (homolateral) and time to generate the visual mental images ( r =0.537; P <0.05).

DISCUSSION

CTS patients have greater difficulty generating motor images than asymptomatic individuals. Patients also spend more time during mental tasks. CTS patients present a relationship between temporal summation and the capacity to generate kinesthetic images. In addition, the CST patients presented a correlation between chronometry mental tasking and mechanical hyperalgesia.

Visual and kinesthetic motor imagery in adults with different degrees of self-reported motor coordination difficulties

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) involves difficulties in performing coordinated movements with fine and/or gross motor skills deficits. Several studies showed that DCD is characterized by motor imagery deficits as well. Here we investigated in neurotypical adults (N = 334) the relationships between the ease of imaging two main motor imagery components, that is the visual and the kinesthetic one, self-reported motor coordination difficulties and handwriting speed. Self-reported motor difficulties were measured by the Adult Developmental Co-ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC) and scores were used to distinguish three groups: participants at risk of DCD (with both relevant childhood and current motor coordination difficulties); with motor coordination difficulties (relevant current but not childhood difficulties); without motor coordination difficulties (neither current nor childhood difficulties). The main results showed more kinesthetic and visual imagery difficulties in participants at risk of DCD than in those both with and without motor coordination difficulties. Interestingly, the relationships between the two imagery components and motor difficulties were different in the three groups, depending on: 1) the developmental phase (childhood or adulthood) to which motor coordination difficulties referred, and 2) the point of view (self or other), from which images were judged. Instead, no relationship was found between imagery abilities and handwriting speed. Thus, a nuanced pattern of the ease of imaging motor imagery emerged in adults with different degrees of self-reported motor coordination difficulties. These findings could be relevant for the assessment of people candidate to undergo a motor imagery training.

Relationship between Corticospinal Excitability While Gazing at the Mirror and Motor Imagery Ability

Mirror therapy (MT) helps stroke survivors recover motor function. Previous studies have reported that an individual's motor imagery ability is related to the areas of brain activity during motor imagery and the effectiveness of motor imagery training. However, the relationship between MT and motor imagery ability and between corticospinal tract excitability during mirror gazing, an important component of MT, and motor imagery ability is unclear. This study determined whether the motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude while gazing at the mirror relates to participants' motor imagery abilities. Twenty-four healthy right-handed adults (seven males) were recruited. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was performed while gazing at the mirror, and MEP of the first dorsal interosseous muscle of the right hand were measured. Motor imagery ability was measured using the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ), which assesses the vividness of motor imagery ability. Additionally, a mental chronometry (MC) task was used to assess time aspects. The results showed a significant moderate correlation between changes in MEP amplitude values while gazing at the mirror, as compared with resting conditions, and assessment scores of KVIQ. This study shows that corticospinal excitability because of mirror gazing may be related to the vividness of motor imagery ability.

Imagined Timed Up and Go test (iTUG) in people with Parkinson's Disease: test-retest reliability and validity

PURPOSE

To determine the test-retest reliability and validity of the Imagined Timed Up and Go Test (iTUG) as a Motor Imagery measure of temporal accuracy in people with Parkinson's Disease (PD).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A descriptive study was conducted following the GRRAS recommendations. Thirty-two people with idiopathic, mild to moderate PD (Hoehn and Yahr I-III), without cognitive impairment (MMSE ≥ 24), were assessed twice (7-15 days apart) with the iTUG. The absolute unadjusted difference in seconds, and the absolute adjusted difference as percentage of estimation error, between real and imagined TUG times, were calculated as outcome measures. Test-retest reliability was assessed using a two-way mixed-effects model of the ICC. Construct validity was tested with the Imagined Box and Blocks Test (iBBT) and convergent validity with clinical characteristics of PD, using the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

The ICC for the unadjusted and adjusted measures of the iTUG was ICC = 0.61 and ICC = 0.55, respectively. Correlations between iTUG and iBBT were not statistically significant. The iTUG was partially correlated to clinical characteristics of PD.

CONCLUSIONS

Test-retest reliability of the iTUG was moderate. Construct validity between iTUG and iBBT was poor, so caution should be taken when using them concurrently to assess imagery's temporal accuracy.

Beyond body image: what body schema and motor imagery can tell us about the way patients with anorexia nervosa experience their body

AIM

Recent evidence suggests that the body image disturbance often observed in patients with anorexia nervosa also extends to the body schema. According to the embodiment approach, the body schema is not only involved in motor execution, but also in tasks that only require a mental simulation of a movement such as motor imagery, mental rotation of bodies, and visuospatial perspective-taking. The aim of the present study was to assess the ability of patients with anorexia to mentally simulate movements.

METHODS

The sample included 52 patients with acute anorexia and 62 healthy controls. All participants completed three tests of explicit motor imagery, a mental rotation test and a test of visuospatial perspective-taking.

RESULTS

Patients with anorexia nervosa, with respect to controls, reported greater difficulties in imagining movements according to a first-person perspective, lower accuracy in motor imagery, selective impairment in the mental rotation of human figures, and reduced ability in assuming a different egocentric visuospatial perspective.

CONCLUSION

These results are indicative of a specific alteration in motor imagery in patients with anorexia nervosa. Interestingly, patients' difficulties appear to be limited to those tasks which specifically rely on the body schema, while patients and controls performed similarly in the 3D objects mental rotation task.

Comparative effects of hypnotic suggestion and imagery instruction on bodily awareness

Bodily awareness is informed by both sensory data and prior knowledge. Although misleading sensory signals have been repeatedly shown to affect bodily awareness, only scant attention has been given to the influence of cognitive variables. Hypnotic suggestion has recently been shown to impact visuospatial and sensorimotor representations of body-part size although the mechanisms subserving this effect are yet to be identified. Mental imagery might play a causal or facilitative role in this effect, as it has been shown to influence body awareness in previous studies. Nonetheless, current views ascribe only an epiphenomenal role to imagery in the implementation of hypnotic suggestions. This study compared the effects of hypnotic suggestion and imagery instruction for influencing the visuospatial and sensorimotor aspects of body-size representation. Both experimental manipulations produced significant increases (elongation) in both representations compared to baseline, although the effects were larger in the hypnotic suggestion condition. The effects of both manipulations were highly correlated across participants, suggesting overlapping mechanisms. Self-reports suggested that the use of voluntary imagery did not significantly contribute to the efficacy of either manipulation. Rather, top-down effects on body representations seem to be partly driven by response expectancies, spontaneous imagery, and hypnotic suggestibility in both conditions. These results are in line with current theories of suggestion and raise fundamental questions regarding the mechanisms driving the influence of cognition on body representations.

Motor imagery training to improve language processing: What are the arguments?

Studies showed that motor expertise was found to induce improvement in language processing. Grounded and situated approaches attributed this effect to an underlying automatic simulation of the motor experience elicited by action words, similar to motor imagery (MI), and suggest shared representations of action conceptualization. Interestingly, recent results also suggest that the mental simulation of action by MI training induces motor-system modifications and improves motor performance. Consequently, we hypothesize that, since MI training can induce motor-system modifications, it could be used to reinforce the functional connections between motor and language system, and could thus lead to improved language performance. Here, we explore these potential interactions by reviewing recent fundamental and clinical literature in the action-language and MI domains. We suggested that exploiting the link between action language and MI could open new avenues for complementary language improvement programs. We summarize the current literature to evaluate the rationale behind this novel training and to explore the mechanisms underlying MI and its impact on language performance.

Test-Retest Reliability and Criterion Validity of the Spanish Version of Two Motor Imagery Questionnaires in People With Parkinson Disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ) and the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised Second Version (MIQ-RS) are measurement instruments that assess motor imagery vividness. The aim of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of the Spanish KVIQ and MIQ-RS in people with Parkinson disease (PD).

METHODS

A longitudinal descriptive study was conducted following the COSMIN standards. Thirty-five people with idiopathic PD were evaluated twice (7-15 days apart) with the Spanish KVIQ and MIQ-RS. Structural validity, internal consistency, test-retest reliability (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), smallest detectable change (SDC), and criterion validity of the MIQ-RS and KVIQ long (KVIQ-20), short (KVIQ-10), and extended (KVIQ-34) versions and their subscales (if pertinent) were tested.

RESULTS

Factor analysis was satisfactory for the MIQ-RS, KVIQ-20, and KVIQ-10, providing evidence of their 2-dimensional structure. Evidence of the structural validity of the KVIQ-34 was not confirmed and thus was analyzed as an overall score. Revelle's ω > 0.9 showed excellent internal consistency. Test-retest reliability was moderate (ICC = 0.58-0.75) and higher for all visual subscales. SEM and SDC were up to 14.39% and 39.89% of the scores, respectively. Criterion validity between questionnaires and subscales was strong (Spearman's r > 0.7).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The results provide evidence for the validity and reliability of the Spanish MIQ-RS, KVIQ-20, and KVIQ-10 to assess motor imagery vividness in people with PD, whereas the KVIQ-34 should only be interpreted as an overall score. Psychometric, procedural, and practical features of the questionnaires should be considered when applying into clinical practice.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A401).

Effects of the Practice of Movement Representation Techniques in People Undergoing Knee and Hip Arthroplasty: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the effects of movement representation techniques (MRT) combined with conventional physical therapy (CFT) in people undergoing knee and hip arthroplasty compared to conventional physical therapy alone in terms of results in physical and functionality variables, cognitive function, and quality of life.

METHODOLOGY

the review was carried out according to the criteria of the PRISMA statement, considering studies in the electronic databases PubMed/Medline, Pubmed Central/Medline, Web of Science, EBSCO, and ScienceDirect.

RESULTS

MRT plus CFT generated therapeutic effects in some aspects of the physical variables: 100% pain (7 of 7 studies); 100% strength (5 out of 5 studies); range of motion 87.5% (7 out of 8 studies); 100% speed (1 of 1 study), functional variables: 100% gait (7 of 7 studies); functional capacity 87.5% (7 out of 8 studies); cognitive variables: 100% motor visualization ability (2 out of 2 studies); cognitive performance 100% (2 of 2 studies); and quality of life 66.6% (2 of 3 studies). When comparing its effects with conventional physical therapy, the variables that reported the greatest statistically significant changes were motor visualization ability, speed, pain, strength and gait. The most used MRT was motor imagery (MI), and the average time extension of therapies was 3.5 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

movement representation techniques combined with conventional physical therapy are an innocuous and low-cost therapeutic intervention with therapeutic effects in patients with knee arthroplasty (KA) and hip arthroplasty (HA), and this combination generates greater therapeutic effects in physical, functional, and cognitive variables than conventional physical therapy alone.

Hand and Foot Selection in Mental Body Rotations Involves Motor-Cognitive Interactions

Action imagery involves the mental representation of an action without overt execution, and can contribute to perspective taking, such as that required for left-right judgments in mental body rotation tasks. It has been shown that perspective (back view, front view), rotational angle (head-up, head-down), and abstractness (abstract, realistic) of the stimulus material influences speed and correctness of the judgement. The present studies investigated whether left-right judgements are more difficult on legs than on arms and whether the type of limb interacts with the other factors. Furthermore, a combined score for speed and accuracy was explored to eliminate possible tradeoffs and to obtain the best possible measure of subjects' individual ability. Study 1 revealed that the front view is more difficult than the back view because it involves a vertical rotation in perspective taking. Head-down rotations are more difficult than head-up rotations because they involve a horizontal rotation in perspective taking. Furthermore, leg stimuli are more difficult than hand stimuli, particularly in head-down rotations. In Study 2, these findings were replicated in abstract stimuli as well as in realistic stimuli. In addition, perspective taking for realistic stimuli in the back view is easier than realistic stimuli in the front view or abstract stimuli (in both perspectives). We conclude that realistic stimulus material facilitates task comprehension and amplifies the effects of perspective. By replicating previous findings, the linear speed-accuracy score was shown to be a valid measure to capture performance in mental body rotations.

Self-perception in anorexia nervosa: When the body becomes an object

OBJECTIVE

Women with anorexia nervosa (AN) act as if they have a larger body, as evidenced in obstacle avoidance tasks, where an allocentric perspective is adopted. This alteration emerges not only when they perform, but also when they imagine movements. However, no previous study has investigated own body centered tasks. As such, in this study we aim at documenting if women with AN show an altered behaviour also when the task requires a first-person perspective.

METHOD

We explored the performance of eleven woman affected by AN compared to eighteen matched controls, in two motor imagery tasks based on a self-frame of reference, the Hand Laterality Task and the Mental Motor Chronometry Task. Moreover, two control tasks relative to visual imagery were administered.

RESULTS

In the Hand Laterality Task, affected participants did not adopt a motor strategy to judge hands laterality (i.e. no biomechanical constraints effect). Crucially, they also showed an altered behavior in the control task. Similarly, they did not show the expected isochrony in the Mental Motor Chronometry Task, when actions pertained the left (but not the right) hand, in absence of any difference in the control task.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal altered imagery processes in AN. Specifically, affected participants adopt a third-person, rather than a first-person perspective, even when the task requires to imagine their own body in an internal frame of reference. In other words, participants with AN objectify body stimuli. Different mechanisms (i.e., checking behaviour; mirror self-reflection; altered multisensory integration) can explain such an altered imagery in AN.

Behavioural indexes of movement imagery ability are associated with the magnitude of corticospinal adaptation following movement imagery training

Movement imagery (MI) is a cognitive process wherein an individual simulates themselves performing a movement in the absence of physical movement. The current paper reports an examination of the relationship between behavioural indexes of MI ability and the magnitude of corticospinal adaptation following MI training. Behavioural indexes of MI ability included data from a questionnaire (MIQ-3), a mental chronometry task, and a hand laterality judgment task. For the measure of corticospinal adaptation, single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was administered to elicit thumb movements to determine the representation of thumb movements before and after MI training. MI training involved participants imagining themselves moving their thumb in the opposite direction to the dominant direction of the TMS-evoked movements prior to training. Pre/post-training changes in the direction and velocity of TMS-evoked thumb movements indicated the magnitude of adaptation following MI training. The two main findings were: 1) a positive relationship was found between the MIQ-3 and the pre/post-training changes in the direction of TMS-evoked thumb movements; and 2) a negative relationship between the mental chronometry measure and both measures of corticospinal adaptation following MI training. These results indicate that both ease of imagery and timing of imagery could predict the magnitude of neuroplastic adaptation following MI training. Thus, both these measures may be considered when assessing imagery ability and determining who might benefit from MI interventions.

Motor Imagery of Walking in People Living with and without Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Comparison of Mental Chronometry

Motor imagery represents the ability to simulate anticipated movements mentally prior to their actual execution and has been proposed as a tool to assess both individuals’ perception of task difficulty as well as their perception of their own abilities. People with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) often present with motor and cognitive dysfunction, which may negatively affect motor imagery. In this cross-sectional study, we explored differences in motor imagery of walking performance between pwMS (n = 20, age = 57.1 (SD = 8.6) years, 55% female) and age- and sex-matched healthy controls (n = 20, age = 58.1 (SD = 7.0) years, 60% female). Participants underwent mental chronometry assessments, a subset of motor imagery, which evaluated the difference between imagined and actual walking times across four walking tasks of increasing difficulty (i.e., large/narrow-width walkway with/without obstacles). Raw and absolute mental chronometry (A-MC) measures were recorded in single- (ST) and dual-task (DT) conditions. In ST conditions, pwMS had higher A-MC scores across all walking conditions (p ≤ 0.031, η² ≥ 0.119), indicating lower motor imagery ability compared to healthy controls. During DT, all participants tended to underestimate their walking ability (3.38 ± 6.72 to 5.63 ± 9.17 s). However, after physical practice, pwMS were less able to adjust their imagined walking performance compared to healthy controls. In pwMS, A-MC scores were correlated with measures of balance confidence (ρ = −0.629, p < 0.01) and the self-reported expanded disability status scale (ρ = 0.747, p < 0.01). While the current study revealed that pwMS have lower motor imagery of walking performance compared to healthy individuals, further work is necessary to examine how the disassociation between mental chronometry and actual performance relates to quality of life and well-being.

The Effectiveness and Recommendation of Motor Imagery Techniques for Rehabilitation after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Systematic Review

Motor imagery (MI) reported positive effects in some musculoskeletal rehabilitation processes. The main objective of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of MI interventions after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. A systematic review was conducted from November 2018 to December 2019 in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library, and Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro). The methodological quality, degree of recommendation, and levels of evidence were analyzed. A total of six studies were included. Selected studies showed unequal results (positive and negative) regarding pain, anxiety, fear of re-injury, function, and activities of daily living. Regarding the range of motion, anthropometric measurements, and quality of life, the results were not conclusive. Muscle activation, strength, knee laxity, time to remove external support, and neurobiological factors showed some favorable results. Nevertheless, the results were based on a limited number of studies, small sample sizes, and a moderate-weak degree of recommendation. In conclusion, our review showed a broader view of the current evidence, including a qualitative assessment to implement MI after ACL surgery. There was no clear evidence that MI added to physiotherapy was an effective intervention after ACL surgery, although some studies showed positive results in clinical outcomes. More adequately-powered long-term randomized controlled trials are necessary.

Effect of motor imagery and actual practice on learning professional medical skills

BACKGROUND

The peripheral venous catheter is the most frequently used medical device in hospital care to administer intravenous treatment or to take blood samples by introducing a catheter into a vein. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of motor imagery associated with actual training on the learning of peripheral venous catheter insertion into a simulated venous system.

METHOD

This was a prospective monocentre study in 3rd year medical students. Forty medical students were assigned to the experimental group (n = 20) performing both real practice and motor imagery of peripheral venous catheter insertion or to the control group (n = 20) trained through real practice only. We also recruited a reference group of 20 professional nurses defining the benchmark for a target performance.

RESULTS

The experimental group learned the peripheral venous catheter insertion faster than the control group in the beginning of learning phase (p < 0.001), reaching the expected level after 4 sessions (p = .87) whereas the control group needed 5 sessions to reach the same level (p = .88). Both groups were at the same level at the end of the scheduled training.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, motor imagery improved professional motor skills learning, and limited the time needed to reach the expected level. Motor imagery may strengthen technical medical skill learning.

Talking with hands: body representation in British Sign Language users

Body representation (BR) refers to the mental representation of motor, sensory, emotional and semantic information about the physical body. This cognitive representation is used in our everyday life, continuously, even though most of the time we do not appreciate it consciously. In some cases, BR is vital to be able to communicate. A crucial feature of signed languages (SLs), for instance, is that body parts such as hands are used to communicate. Nevertheless, little is known about BR in SL: is the communicative function of the body overwriting the physical constraints? Here, we explored this question by comparing twelve British Sign Language (BSL) learners to seventeen tango dancers (body expertise but not for communication) and fourteen control subjects (no special body expertise). We administered the Body Esteem Scale (BES), the Hand Laterality Task (HLT) and the Mental Motor Chronometry (MMC). To control for visual imagery, we administered ad hoc control tasks. We did not identify parameters able to differentiate between SL users and the other groups, whereas the more implicit parameters distinguished clearly tango dancers from controls. Importantly, neither tasks on visual imagery nor the BES revealed differences. Our findings offer initial evidence that linguistic use of the body not necessarily influences the cognitive components we explored of body representation.

Comparative analysis of the autonomic nervous system response during movement representation in healthy individuals and patients with chronic low back pain: a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective was to compare the difference in autonomic nervous system (ANS) response between motor imagery (MI) group and action observation (AO) group. Both consisted of two subgroups: the control subgroup (CG), which consisted of asymptomatic individuals, and the patient subgroup (PG), which consisted of patients with chronic low back pain (CLBP). The secondary objective was to assess ANS activity during AO and MI training according to the fear-of-movement levels of the PGs.

METHODS

Sixty participants were randomly assigned. The autonomic outcome measures included skin conductance (SC), respiration rate (RR), and heart rate (HR).

RESULTS

Results showed that intergroup differences in RR were higher in the PG, with a large effect size (p = .007, d = 1.71). Only the PGs showed intragroup differences in SC (p <.05). In terms of ANS activity during the training, there were no statistically significant intergroup differences (p <.05). However, the strongest intragroup differences were among the AO_PG with greater levels of kinesiophobia. For the SC and HR variables, only this condition showed significant differences between baseline and the first and second movements, with a large effect size (p <.001 and p = .002, respectively, and d >.80).

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that AO and MI training in the PG and CG resulted in similar but not identical ANS activation, with slightly higher activation in the PG. The differences in the PG could be associated with kinesiophobia when visually exposed to low-back movements that could be interpreted as hazardous or unsafe.

Eyes wide shut: How visual cues affect brain patterns of simulated gait

In the last 20 years, motor imagery (MI) has been extensively used to train motor abilities in sport and in rehabilitation. However, MI procedures are not all alike as much as their potential beneficiaries. Here we assessed whether the addition of visual cues could make MI performance more comparable with explicit motor performance in gait tasks. With fMRI we also explored the neural correlates of these experimental manipulations. We did this in elderly subjects who are known to rely less on kinesthetic information while favoring visual strategies during motor performance. Contrary to expectations, we found that the temporal coupling between execution and imagery times, an index of the quality of MI, was less precise when participants were allowed to visually explore the environment. While the brain activation patterns of the gait motor circuits were very similar in both an open‐eyed and eye‐shut virtual walking MI task, these differed for a vast temporo‐occipito‐parietal additional activation for open‐eyed MI. Crucially, the higher was the activity in this posterior network, the less accurate was the MI performance with eyes open at a clinical test of gait. We conclude that both visually‐cued and internally‐cued MI are associated with the neurofunctional activation of a gait specific motor system. The less precise behavioral coupling between imagined and executed gait while keeping eyes open may be attributed to the processing load implied in visual monitoring and scanning of the environment. The implications of these observations for rehabilitation of gait with MI are discussed.

Imagining handwriting movements in a usual or unusual position: effect of posture congruency on visual and kinesthetic motor imagery

Motor imagery has been used in training programs to improve the performance of motor skills. Handwriting movement may benefit from motor imagery training. To optimize the efficacy of this kind of training, it is important to identify the factors that facilitate the motor imagery process for handwriting movements. Several studies have shown that motor imagery is more easily achieved when there is maximum compatibility between the actual posture and the imagined movement. We, therefore, examined the effect of posture congruency on visual and kinesthetic motor imagery for handwriting movements. Adult participants had to write and imagine writing a sentence by focusing on the evocation of either the kinesthetic or visual consequences of the motion. Half the participants performed the motor imagery task in a congruent posture (sitting with a hand ready for writing), and half in an incongruent one (standing with arms crossed behind the back and fingers spread wide). The temporal similarity between actual and imagined movement times and the vividness of the motor imagery were evaluated. Results revealed that temporal similarity was stronger in the congruent posture condition than in the incongruent one. Furthermore, in the incongruent posture condition, participants reported greater difficulty forming a precise kinesthetic motor image of themselves writing than a visual image, whereas no difference was observed in the congruent posture condition. Taken together, our results show that postural information is taken into account during the mental simulation of handwriting movements. The implications of these findings for guiding the design of motor imagery training are discussed.

Effects of movement representation techniques on motor learning of thumb-opposition tasks

The present work is the first study that assess long run change after motor learning. The study’s main objective was to evaluate the short to medium-term impact of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) on motor learning of a sequence of thumb-opposition tasks of increasing complexity. We randomly assigned 45 participants to an AO, MI, or placebo observation (PO) group. A sequence of 12 thumb-opposition tasks was taught for 3 consecutive days (4 per day). The primary outcome was accuracy. The secondary outcomes were required time and perfect positioning. The outcomes were assessed immediately after the intervention and at 1 week, 1 month and 4 months postintervention. Regarding the primary outcome, AO group had significantly higher accuracy than the MI or PO group until at least 4 months (p < 0.01, d > 0.80). However, in the bimanual positions, AO was not superior to MI at 1 week postintervention. Regarding secondary outcomes, AO group required less time than the MI group to remember and perform the left-hand and both-hand gestures, with a large effect size (p < 0.01, d > 0.80). In terms of percentage of perfect positions, AO group achieved significantly better results than the MI group until at least 4 months after the intervention in the unimanual gestures (p < 0.01, d > 0.80) and up to 1 month postintervention in the bimanual gestures (p = 0.012, d = 1.29). AO training resulted in greater and longer term motor learning than MI and placebo intervention. If the goal is to learn some motor skills for whatever reason (e.g., following surgery or immobilization.), AO training should be considered clinically.

Frequency-specific equivalence of brain activity on motor imagery during action observation and action execution

BACKGROUND

Human motor imagery (MI), action execution, and action observation (AO) are functionally considered as equivalent. MI during AO can extensively induce activation of motor-related brain network in the absence of overt movement. The magnetoencephalography (MEG) provides an important technology to reveal and reflect human brain information processing in multi-frequency bands. Utilizing a MEG system, we aimed to quantitatively investigate the frequency-specific equivalent characteristics in brain processing patterns between MI during AO and action execution in multi-frequency bands, including delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma, and high-frequency oscillations.

METHODS

A total of 12 healthy subjects were studied with a whole-head MEG system during finger movement and MI during finger movement observation. We analyzed the brain activities in multi-frequency ranges of 1 Hz to 200 Hz.

RESULTS

Both MI during AO and action execution evoked the distinctive brain activities in low frequency ranges (i.e. delta, theta, and alpha). Significant differences were found in global spectral power between finger movement and MI during AO in delta and alpha oscillations. Compared with finger movement, delta (1-4 Hz) oscillation power in MI during AO were obviously decreased in left and right frontals and occipitals, and theta (4-8 Hz) and alpha (8-13 Hz) oscillation power were obviously increased in frontal, parietal and occipital.

CONCLUSION

MEG power evoked by finger movement and MI during AO is mainly concentrated in the energy distribution below 13 Hz. Furthermore, finger movement and MI during AO might share frequency-specific equivalence of brain neural activation dependent on different MEG frequency ranges.

Nonlinear Analysis of Eye-Tracking Information for Motor Imagery Assessments

This study investigates the assessment of motor imagery (MI) ability in humans. Commonly, MI ability is measured through two methodologies: a self-administered questionnaire (MIQ-3) and the mental chronometry (MC), which measures the temporal discrepancy between the actual and the imagined motor tasks. However, both measures rely on subjects' self-assessment and do not use physiological measures. In this study, we propose a novel set of features extracted from the nonlinear dynamics of the eye gaze signal to discriminate between good and bad imagers. To this aim, we designed an experiment where twenty volunteers, categorized as good or bad imagers according to MC, performed three tasks: a motor task (MT), a visual Imagery task (VI), and a kinaesthetic Imagery task (KI). Throughout the experiment, the subjects' eye gaze was continuously monitored using an eye-tracking system. Eye gaze time series were analyzed through recurrence quantification analysis of the reconstructed phase space and compared between the two groups. Statistical results have shown how nonlinear eye behavior can express an inner dynamics of imagery mental process and may be used as a more objective and physiological-based measure of MI ability.

The Role of Movement Representation Techniques in the Motor Learning Process: A Neurophysiological Hypothesis and a Narrative Review

We present a neurophysiological hypothesis for the role of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) training in the motor learning process. The effects of movement representation in the brain and those of the cortical–subcortical networks related to planning, executing, adjusting, and automating real movements share a similar neurophysiological activity. Coupled with the influence of certain variables related to the movement representation process, this neurophysiological activity is a key component of the present hypothesis. These variables can be classified into four domains: physical, cognitive–evaluative, motivational–emotional, and direct-modulation. The neurophysiological activity underlying the creation and consolidation of mnemonic representations of motor gestures as a prerequisite to motor learning might differ between AO and MI. Together with variations in cognitive loads, these differences might explain the differing results in motor learning. The mirror neuron system appears to function more efficiently through AO training than MI, and AO is less demanding in terms of cognitive load than MI. AO might be less susceptible to the influence of variables related to movement representation.

Deutsche Übersetzung und Validierung des VMIQ-2 zur Erfassung der Lebhaftigkeit von Handlungsvorstellungen

The aim of the study was to validate a German version of the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire 2 (VMIQ-2; Roberts, Callow, Hardy, Markland, & Bringer, 2008), which measures external visual, internal visual, and kinesthetic vividness of movement imagery. The psychometric characteristics of the German version did not differ significantly from the English version. Using confirmatory factor analyses, the three-dimensional structure of the VMIQ-2 was replicated with reasonable fit and good internal consistency. The test-retest reliability was moderate. Thus, the German version of the VMIQ-2 is a valid instrument for measuring the vividness of movement imagery.

Mental practice in isolation improves cervical joint position sense in patients with chronic neck pain: a randomized single-blind placebo trial

Objective

The main objective of this trial was to assess whether action observation (AO) training and motor imagery (MI) produced changes in the cervical joint position sense (CJPS) both at the end of the intervention and 10 min postintervention compared with a placebo intervention in patients with nonspecific chronic neck pain (NSCNP).

Methods

A single-blind placebo clinical trial was designed. A total of 30 patients with NSCNP were randomly assigned to the AO group, MI group or placebo observation (PO) group. CJPS in flexion, extension and rotation movements in both planes were the main variables.

Results

The results obtained in the vertical plane showed that the AO group obtained greater improvements than the PO group in the CJPS in terms of cervical extension movement both at the end of the intervention and 10 min postintervention (p = .001, d = 1.81 and p = .004, d = 1.74, respectively), and also in cervical flexion movement, although only at 10 min after the intervention (p = .035, d = 0.72). In addition, the AO group obtained greater improvements than the MI group in the CJPS only at the end of the intervention in cervical extension movement (p = .041, d = 1.17). Regarding the left rotation cervical movement, both the MI and AO groups were superior to the PO group in both planes at the end of the intervention (p < .05, d > 0.80).

Conclusions

Although both AO and MI could be a useful strategy for CJPS improvement, the AO group showed the strongest results. The therapeutic potential of the application of mental practice in a clinical context in the early stages of rehabilitation of NSCNP should be considered.

Target-oriented motor imagery for grasping action: different characteristics of brain activation between kinesthetic and visual imagery

Motor imagery (MI) for target-oriented movements, which is a basis for functional activities of daily living, can be more appropriate than non-target-oriented MI as tasks to promote motor recovery or brain-computer interface (BCI) applications. This study aimed to explore different characteristics of brain activation among target-oriented kinesthetic imagery (KI) and visual imagery (VI) in the first-person (VI-1) and third-person (VI-3) perspectives. Eighteen healthy volunteers were evaluated for MI ability, trained for the three types of target-oriented MIs, and scanned using 3 T functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) under MI and perceptual control conditions, presented in a block design. Post-experimental questionnaires were administered after fMRI. Common brain regions activated during the three types of MI were the left premotor area and inferior parietal lobule, irrespective of the MI modalities or perspectives. Contrast analyses showed significantly increased brain activation only in the contrast of KI versus VI-1 and KI versus VI-3 for considerably extensive brain regions, including the supplementary motor area and insula. Neural activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and cerebellum during VI-1 and KI was significantly correlated with MI ability measured by mental chronometry and a self-reported questionnaire, respectively. These results can provide a basis in developing MI-based protocols for neurorehabilitation to improve motor recovery and BCI training in severely paralyzed individuals.

Does hypnotic assessment predict the functional equivalence between motor imagery and action?

Motor imagery is influenced by individual and contextual factors. We investigated whether the psychophysiological trait of hypnotisability modulates its subjective experience and cortical correlates similarly to what was previously shown for head postures mental images. EEG was acquired in 18 high (highs) and 15 low (lows) hypnotizable subjects (Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, A). The experimental conditions were: baseline, a complex arm/hand movement, visual (1st person) and kinesthetic imagery of the movement. After each imagery condition, participants scored the vividness and easeness of their performance and their ability to mantain the requested modality of imagery. Subjective reports, chronometric visual/kinesthetic indices, absolute beta and fronto-central midline alpha powers were analyzed. Findings confirmed earlier reports of better kinestetic imagery ability in highs than in lows and better visual than kinesthetic imagery in lows, as well as smaller restructuring of the cortical activity in highs than in lows, during all tasks. Also, they show that hypnotisability accounts for most of the correlations between brain regions for both alpha and beta changes. Thus, imagined and actual movements were less demanding processes in highs at subjective and cortical levels. Finally, hypnotic assessment assists to plan personalized mental training for neuro-rehabilitation and sports and predict their efficacy.

Motor Imagery and Action Observation of Specific Neck Therapeutic Exercises Induced Hypoalgesia in Patients with Chronic Neck Pain: A Randomized Single-Blind Placebo Trial

The aim of the present study was to explore the pain modulation effects of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) of specific neck therapeutic exercises both locally, in the cervical region, and remotely. A single-blind, placebo clinical trial was designed. A total of 30 patients with chronic neck pain (CNP) were randomly assigned to an AO group, MI group, or placebo observation (PO) group. Pain pressure thresholds (PPTs) of C2/C3, trapezius muscles, and epicondyle were the main outcome variables. Secondary outcomes included heart rate measurement. Statistically significant differences were observed in PPTs of the cervical region in the AO and MI groups between the preintervention and first postintervention assessment. Significant differences were found in the AO group in the epicondyle between the preintervention, first and second post-intervention assessments. Regarding heart rate response, differences were found in the AO and MI groups between the preintervention and average intervention measurements. AO and MI induce immediate pain modulation in the cervical region and AO also induces remote hypoalgesia. OA appears to lead to greater pain modulation as well as a greater heart rate response, however, both should be clinically considered in patients with CNP.

Imagery ability of elite level athletes from individual vs. team and contact vs. no-contact sports

Background

In the sport context, imagery has been described as the condition in which persons imagine themselves while executing skills to deal with the upcoming task or enhance performance. Systematic reviews have shown that mental imagery improves performance in motor tasks

Methods

The aim of the present study was to explore whether imagery vividness (i.e., the clarity or realism of the imagery experience) and controllability (i.e., the ease and accuracy with which an image can be manipulated mentally) differ by sport types (team vs. individual and contact vs. non-contact). Participants were athletes from team contact and non-contact sports (rugby and volleyball, respectively), and individual contact and non-contact sports (karate and tennis, respectively) between the ages of 20 and 33 years (M = 24.37, SD = 2.85). The participants completed the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2, and the Mental Image Transformation Tasks.

Results

A 2 ×2 × 2 (gender × 2 contact-no-contact × 2 sport type) between groups MANOVA showed differences in imagery ability by sport type. Practical indications deriving from the findings of this study can help coaches and athletes to develop mental preparation programs using sport-specific imagery.

Learning Choreography: An Investigation of Motor Imagery, Attentional Effort, and Expertise in Modern Dance

The study of choreography in dance offers researchers an intriguing window on the relationship between expertise, imagination, and attention in the creative process of learning new movements. The present study investigated an unresolved issue in this field - namely, the effects of expertise on motor imagery (MI; or the mental rehearsal of actions without engaging in the actual movements involved) and attentional effort (as measured by pupil dilation) on dancers while they engaged in the processes of learning, performing, and imagining a dance movement. Participants were 18 female dancers (mean age = 23, SD = 5.85) comprising three experience levels (i.e., novice, intermediate and expert performers) in this field. Data comprised these participants' MI scores as well as their pupil dilation while they learned, performed, and imagined a 15 s piece of choreography. In addition, the time taken both to perform and to imagine the choreography were recorded. Results showed no significant effect of dance expertise on MI but some differences between beginners and intermediate dancers in attentional effort (pupil dilation) at the start of the performance and the imagined movement conditions. Specifically, the beginners had the highest pupil dilation, with the experts having the second highest, while intermediates had the lowest dilation. Further analysis suggested that the novice dancers' pupil dilation at the start of the performance may have been caused, in part, by the initial mental effort required to assess the cognitive demands of the dance task.

Familiarity and complexity of a movement influences motor imagery in dancers: A cross-sectional study

The present study aimed to analyze the differences between ballet, contemporary, and flamenco dancers when generating mental motor kinesthetic and visual images of simple and complex movements. A cross-sectional study, including 45 professional dancers (15 flamenco dancers, 15 ballet dancers, and 15 contemporary dancers), was planned. We analyzed the ability to generate mental motor visual and kinesthetic images with the revised movement imagery questionnaire (MIQ-R) and mental chronometry (MC); the real movement execution (RME) chronometry was also measured, using arm and jump movement assessments. ANOVA revealed significant differences between groups regarding the jump movement assessments for the kinesthetic MIQ-R item (F = 5.29, P = 0.009), for the RME chronometry (F = 13.19, P = <0.001), and for the kinesthetic MC (F = 9.28, P < 0.001). The post-hoc analysis revealed significant differences between flamenco dancers compared with contemporary and ballet dancers for all the variables regarding the jump movement. Flamenco dancers used significantly greater visual than kinesthetic imagery modalities to generate mental motor imagery in the jump movement (P = 0.024, d = 0.63). No differences were found in the arm movement assessment between groups. Results reveal differences in the ability to generate motor images, specifically the kinesthetic ones, between flamenco dancers and ballet and contemporary dancers. When performing a non-familiar complex movement, dancers predominantly use a visual motor imagery modality, which leads to a longer execution time as well as a longer time for kinesthetic mental motor imagery.

Disruption of motor imagery performance following inhibition of the left inferior parietal lobe

The left inferior parietal lobe (IPL), a brain region localized to the ventro-dorsal stream, is known to be critical to motor imagery (MI) performance. Yet its specific role in processes underlying MI, namely the generation, maintenance, manipulation, and controllability of motor images, is conflicting in the literature. To determine the specific role of the left IPL in MI, the current study sought to examine the effect inhibition of the left IPL has on performance on two disparate measures thought to probe different MI processes within the same participants. Participants (N = 31) completed the hand laterality judgment task (HLJT), employed to probe processes related to manipulation and controllability, and mental chronometry, employed to probe processes related to generation and maintenance, after receiving either inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation to the left IPL (Active-TMS group), or with the coil angled away from the scalp (Sham group). Impaired performance on the HLJT was observed following active TMS relative to sham. Similar mental chronometry performance resulted regardless of left IPL inhibition. In showing that inhibition of the left IPL selectively disrupted performance on the HLJT but not mental chronometry, our findings indicate that the left IPL is specifically involved in image manipulation and controllability during MI. Ultimately, the current study extends our understanding of the role of the left IPL in MI.

Vividness and accuracy: Two independent aspects of motor imagery

Motor imagery is the mental execution of an action without any actual movement. Although numerous studies have utilized questionnaires to evaluate the vividness of motor imagery, it remains unclear whether it is related to the accuracy of motor imagery. To examine the relationship between vividness and accuracy, we investigated brain activity during kinesthetic and visual motor imagery, by using a novel sequential finger-tapping task. We estimated accuracy by measuring the fidelity of the actual performance and evaluated vividness by using a visual analog scale. We found that accuracy of visual motor imagery was correlated with the activity in the left visual cortex, as well as with bilateral sensorimotor regions. In contrast, vividness of visual motor imagery was associated with the activity in the right orbitofrontal cortex. However, there was no correlation in the brain activity between the right orbitofrontal cortex and visuomotor regions or between vividness and accuracy of motor imagery. In addition, we did not find any correlation in the kinesthetic imagery condition. We conclude that vividness of visual motor imagery is associated with the right orbitofrontal cortex and is independent of processes occurring in sensorimotor regions, which would be responsible for the accuracy of visual motor imagery.

Combining motor imagery with action observation training does not lead to a greater autonomic nervous system response than motor imagery alone during simple and functional movements: a randomized controlled trial

Both motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) trigger the activation of the neurocognitive mechanisms that underlie the planning and execution of voluntary movements in a manner that resembles how the action is performed in a real way. The main objective of the present study was to compare the autonomic nervous system (ANS) response in an isolated MI group compared to a combined MI + AO group. The mental tasks were based on two simple movements that are recorded in the revised movement imagery questionnaire in third-person perspective. The secondary objective of the study was to test if there was any relationship between the ANS variables and the ability to generate mental motor imagery, the mental chronometry and the level of physical activity. The main outcomes that were measured were heart rate, respiratory rate and electrodermal activity. A Biopac MP150 system, a measurement device of autonomic changes, was used for the quantification and evaluation of autonomic variables. Forty five asymptomatic subjects were selected and randomized in three groups: isolated MI, MI + AO and control group (CG). In regards to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), no differences were observed between MI and MI + AO groups (p > .05), although some differences were found between both groups when compared to the CG (p < .05). Additionally, even though no associations were reported between the ANS variables and the ability to generate mental motor imagery, moderate-strong positive associations were found in mental chronometry and the level of physical activity. Our results suggest that MI and MI + AO, lead to an activation of the SNS, although there are no significant differences between the two groups. Based on results obtained, we suggest that tasks of low complexity, providing a visual input through the AO does not facilitates their subsequent motor imagination. A higher level of physical activity as well as a longer time to perform mental task, seem to be associated with a greater increase in the ANS response.