Dietary therapy for eosinophilic esophagitis: chances and limitations in the clinical practice

Circulating Food Allergen-Specific Antibodies, Beyond IgG4, Are Elevated in Eosinophilic Esophagitis

INTRODUCTION

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory condition with an incompletely understood immuno-pathogenesis involving a T2 response. EoE is triggered by food allergens although, unlike IgE-mediated allergies, it exhibits high IgG4 levels in oesophageal biopsies and in circulation. We investigated whether other antibody isotypes specific for food allergens are elevated in EoE and vary with disease activity.

METHODS

Plasma samples from patients with active EoE (n = 51), inactive EoE (n = 82) and non-EoE controls (n = 14) were analysed for food-specific IgG and IgA subclasses against casein, whey, wheat, egg and individual cow's milk allergens by ELISA. α-lactalbumin (Bos d 4)- and β-lactoglobulin (Bos d 5)-specific B cells were measured by flow cytometry in a subset of patients.

RESULTS

Food allergen-specific antibodies in the plasma varied across EoE subgroups and non-EoE controls. Elevated IgG4 in EoE patients confirmed a strong antibody response to food allergens, including casein, wheat and egg. αS1-casein (Bos d 9)-specific IgG, IgG2, IgG4, IgA1 and IgA2 differed between EoE and non-EoE controls and between active and inactive EoE. β-casein (Bos d 11, A1 variant) measurements showed higher levels of specific IgG2 and IgG4 in both EoE groups, whereas whey-derived allergens showed opposing responses: Bos d 4 responses favoured IgG4, and Bos d 5 responses were elevated across multiple IgG and IgA subclasses in EoE. Allergen-specific B cells could not be isolated from the circulation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings reveal distinct antibody profiles in EoE plasma, with elevated IgG and IgA subclasses beyond IgG4, highlighting a complex immune response to food allergens. Differential antibody responses support their clinical relevance in dietary management strategies, while the absence of allergen-specific B cells in circulation likely restricts antibody production to the inflamed oesophagus. Future research should explore whether these antibody profiles can guide personalised treatment and novel therapeutic targets in EoE.

Dupilumab is efficacious for eosinophilic esophagitis irrespective of prior swallowed budesonide or fluticasone, or prior treatments used alongside swallowed topical corticosteroids: results from the phase 3, randomized, placebo-controlled, LIBERTY EoE TREET trial

BACKGROUND

Standard treatments for eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) may present adherence, tolerance, and efficacy challenges. Dupilumab 300 mg weekly is approved for the treatment of EoE in patients ≥ 1 year old, weighing ≥ 15 kg. This analysis aimed to evaluate dupilumab efficacy in patients from the LIBERTY EoE TREET trial (NCT03633617), with prior history of different EoE interventions.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This analysis included patients from Parts B/B - C of LIBERTY EoE TREET. Dupilumab efficacy was analyzed according to prior swallowed budesonide or fluticasone use and in those patients with previously trialed food elimination diet, esophageal dilation, or baseline proton pump inhibitor use, as stratified by prior swallowed topical corticosteroid (STC) use or STC inadequate response/intolerance/contraindication.

RESULTS

Dupilumab improved the proportion of patients achieving peak intraepithelial eosinophil count ≤ 6 eosinophils/high-power field, absolute change in Dysphagia Symptom Questionnaire score, and other histologic, symptomatic, and endoscopic endpoints vs. placebo at Week (W) 24, irrespective of prior swallowed budesonide/fluticasone use. Improvements were maintained at W52. Similar results were observed across the other subgroups.

CONCLUSION

Dupilumab was efficacious in patients with EoE irrespective of prior treatments/interventions.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

www.clinicaltrials.gov identifier is NCT03633617.

Eosinophilic esophagitis: does age matter?

INTRODUCTION

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the esophagus with increasing prevalence worldwide. It is a multifactorial disease caused by a combination of immunologic, genetic, and environmental factors. The clinical presentation of EoE varies largely, especially between different age groups. While diagnostic criteria and therapeutic goals are similar in children and adults, there are differences in treatment, with a more cautious approach in children to avoid growth disturbances. In addition, close monitoring and follow-up are essential in children to ensure uninterrupted growth.

AREAS COVERED

A search in PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, and SCOPUS databases was conducted to identify relevant studies published between January 2010 and January 2023 to give an overview of the state-of-the-art of EoE epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment while focusing on similarities and differences between the adult and the pediatric population.

EXPERT OPINION

The current state of research indicates that while significant progress has been made in understanding and treating EoE, further research and advances are needed to optimize diagnostic strategies, tailored treatment approaches, monitoring, and follow-up, and improve long-term outcomes for patients. With further innovation, the management of EoE can become more precise and tailored, leading to better patient outcomes and improved quality of life.

Mechanistic Insights into Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Therapies Targeting Pathophysiological Mechanisms

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by eosinophilic infiltration of the esophagus. It arises from a complex interplay of genetic predisposition (susceptibility loci), environmental triggers (allergens and dietary antigens), and a dysregulated immune response, mainly mediated by type 2 T helper cell (Th2)-released cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13. These cytokines control eosinophil recruitment and activation as well as tissue remodeling, contributing to the characteristic features of EoE. The pathogenesis of EoE includes epithelial barrier dysfunction, mast cell activation, eosinophil degranulation, and fibrosis. Epithelial barrier dysfunction allows allergen penetration and promotes immune cell infiltration, thereby perpetuating the inflammatory response. Mast cells release proinflammatory mediators and promote eosinophil recruitment and the release of cytotoxic proteins and cytokines, causing tissue damage and remodeling. Prolonged inflammation can lead to fibrosis, resulting in long-term complications such as strictures and dysmotility. Current treatment options for EoE are limited and mainly focus on dietary changes, proton-pump inhibitors, and topical corticosteroids. Novel therapies targeting key inflammatory pathways, such as monoclonal antibodies against IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, are emerging in clinical trials. A deeper understanding of the complex pathogenetic mechanisms behind EoE will contribute to the development of more effective and personalized therapeutic strategies.

Recent Trends in the Management of Eosinophilic Esophagitis: A Systematic Review

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic immune-mediated condition characterized by inflammation and eosinophilic accumulation of the esophagus, resulting in dysphagia and food impaction. While the exact etiology of EoE remains unclear, it is believed to be triggered by food allergens and dynamic environmental factors, resulting in various clinical manifestations, from inflammation to fibrosis. Although clinical presentation varies with age, the number of eosinophils in esophagogastroduodenal endoscopy remains the diagnostic gold standard. While diet elimination, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), topical corticosteroids, and biological therapy are promising treatment options for EoE, there are insufficient data to determine the optimal therapeutic treatment approach. Combination therapies - the use of dietary therapies in conjunction with other treatment modalities, such as PPIs, topical corticosteroids, or biologic agents - have also emerged as a potential management strategy for EoE. In this systematic review, we attempt to highlight the recent advances in EoE therapies and provide updated guidance to their management. From 2017 to 2022, we conducted a comprehensive electronic search of PubMed (MEDLINE) using specific keywords related to our objective and eventually included a total of 44 articles.

Predictors of histologic response to dietary therapy in eosinophilic oesophagitis

BACKGROUND

Dietary therapy successfully treats eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE), but limited data exist on predictors of patient response.

AIMS

To determine response rates and to identify predictors of histologic response to elimination diets in adults with EoE METHODS: This was a retrospective, single-centre study of adults with PPI-refractory EoE undergoing dietary therapy with six food elimination diet (SFED) or extended six food elimination diet (ExSFED) in an outpatient setting from January 2012 to January 2019. Patient demographics, radiologic and endoscopic findings, endoscopic reference (EREF) scores, histology and symptoms were evaluated before and after food elimination. Histologic response was assessed via tissue obtained from endoscopically-guided biopsy or Cytosponge. Dietary therapy adherence was assessed via structured phone interview. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to identify predictors of dietary response.

RESULTS

We included 68 patients, of whom 62% had a histologic response to dietary therapy (81% to SFED, 19% to ExSFED). Median duration of follow-up was 45 months (IQR, 34-53 months). On multivariable analysis, higher pre-SFED EREF score was the only variable associated with dietary non-response (OR 0.07, 95% CI 0.49, 0.98; p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

In adults with EoE, histologic dietary non-response to SFED was associated with a higher pre-SFED EREF score, suggesting that fixed structural disease may predict dietary non-response. Our additional observations of poor correlation between symptomatic and histologic flares, and identification of ExSFED responders, suggest that histologic confirmation should be sought before committing patients to lifelong dietary changes. We also recommend the consideration of restricting legumes and corn in SFED non-responders as ExSFED detected additional dietary responders.

Tolerance to sterilised cow's milk in patients with eosinophilic oesophagitis triggered by milk

BACKGROUND

Cow's milk protein is the main food trigger for eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE) in children and adults and should be continuously avoided once identified as such.

AIMS

To evaluate tolerance of sterilised cow's milk (boiled instead of UHT processing) with regard to maintenance of EoE remission, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), nutritional intake and allergic sensitisation in patients of all ages with milk-triggered EoE METHODS: We prospectively recruited patients in whom cow's milk was demonstrated to trigger EoE after an empirical food elimination diet-based study. They were given 200 ml of sterilised cow's milk twice daily for 8 weeks. Endoscopic assessment, peak eosinophil counts, oesophageal-related symptoms, HRQoL, blood eosinophils, eosinophil cationic protein (ECP), skin prick test and serum total and specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) to major milk proteins were monitored before and after sterilised milk intake.

RESULTS

Eighteen patients (13 male) in EoE remission underwent a sterilised milk challenge. Twelve maintained EoE remission (<15 eos/hpf) while EoE recurred in the remainder. Endoscopic appearances deteriorated in non-tolerant patients. HRQoL scored well at baseline and was maintained among patients tolerant to sterilised milk, but deteriorated in reactive ones. No significant changes in blood eosinophil count, ECP, tryptase or total and milk-specific IgE serum levels were observed from baseline. However, cow's milk-specific IgE increased slightly in non-tolerant patients. Clinical and histological remission were maintained in patients who regularly consumed sterilised milk for 1 year.

CONCLUSION

Sterilised milk did not trigger EoE in two-thirds of patients with documented milk-induced EoE, in either the short or long term.

Disease Burden and Unmet Need in Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic, progressive, type 2 inflammatory disease of increasing prevalence, characterized by symptoms of dysphagia and reduced quality of life. A dysregulated type 2 immune response to food and aeroallergen leads to barrier dysfunction, chronic esophageal inflammation, remodeling, and fibrosis. Patients with EoE have impaired quality of life because of dysphagia and other symptoms. They may also suffer social and psychological implications of food-related illness and expensive out-of-pocket costs associated with treatment. Disease burden in EoE is often compounded by the presence of comorbid type 2 inflammatory diseases. Current conventional treatments include elimination diet, proton pump inhibitors, and swallowed topical corticosteroids, as well as esophageal dilation in patients who have developed strictures. These treatments demonstrate variable response rates and may not always provide long-term disease control. There is an unmet need for long-term histologic, endoscopic, and symptomatic disease control; for targeted therapies that can normalize the immune response to triggers, reduce chronic inflammation, and limit or prevent remodeling and fibrosis; and for earlier diagnosis, defined treatment outcomes, and a greater understanding of patient perspectives on treatment. In addition, healthcare professionals need a better understanding of the patient perspective on disease burden, the disconnect between symptoms and disease activity, and the progressive nature of EoE and the need for continuous monitoring and maintenance treatment. In this review, we explore the progression of disease over the patient's lifespan, highlight the patient perspective on disease, and discuss the unmet need for effective long-term treatments.

Current treatment options and long-term outcomes in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis

INTRODUCTION

Dietary and pharmacological (proton pump inhibitors, swallowed topical corticosteroids) therapies are effective for induction of clinical and histological remission of eosinophilic esophagitis. However, data evaluating their long-term efficacy and safety is limited.

AREAS COVERED

Since eosinophilic esophagitis is chronic, clinical, endoscopic, and histological features usually recur when successful treatments are stopped. In untreated patients, persistent esophageal eosinophilic inflammation may progress to fibrostenosis over time, giving place to strictures and narrow-caliber esophagi. This article comprehensively reviews available data on long-term maintenance of eosinophilic esophagitis with pharmacological and dietary treatment. It also discusses limitations re: available literature and outlines data gaps on adherence to therapy and monitoring disease activity in the long-term.

EXPERT OPINION

Evidence indicates that long-term maintenance therapy may decrease the risk of esophageal stricture, food bolus impaction, and need for dilation in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis. Further knowledge on eosinophilic esophagitis phenotypes is needed to ascertain who will benefit best from sustained therapy. Unanswered questions include an adequate definition for sustained remission, best strategies for maintenance drugs and diets, enhancement of treatment adherence, and proper monitoring for long-term surveillance.

Combination of Proton Pump Inhibitors and Food Elimination Diet for Eosinophilic Esophagitis Refractory to Monotherapy

Background and Aims

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an antigen-mediated inflammatory esophageal disease that is commonly treated with high-dose proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), topical corticosteroids, or food elimination diet (FED) monotherapy. Combination treatment has not been well studied in the management of EoE. We aimed to determine if PPI and FED combination therapy was able to induce histologic remission in patients with EoE refractory to monotherapy.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study identifying patients with EoE that was refractory to PPI monotherapy and FED monotherapy but histologically responsive to PPI and FED combination therapy. We also identified symptom changes through chart review.

Results

Out of 405 EoE patients, 12 patients were identified with EoE that was refractory to PPI monotherapy and FED monotherapy but histologically responsive to PPI and FED combination therapy. Out of 12 patients, 11 (91.67%) noted resolution of symptoms while on combination therapy. Comparative analysis of peak eosinophil counts showed that patients achieved a median of 4.5 eos/hpf (interquartile range [IQR], 2-6.5), which was significantly decreased compared to baseline (median, 45; IQR, 35.5-50; Wilcoxon signed-rank test, P < .001), PPI monotherapy (median, 41; IQR, 26-50; Wilcoxon signed-rank test, P < .001), and FED monotherapy (median, 45; IQR, 17-67.5; Wilcoxon signed-rank test, P < .001).

Conclusion

Our work shows that patients with EoE refractory to PPI monotherapy and FED monotherapy can successfully achieve histologic remission and symptom benefit with PPI and FED combination therapy. Therefore, combination therapy should be considered a viable option for patients with EoE who fail treatment with first-line monotherapies.

Evidence-based treatments for eosinophilic esophagitis: insights for the clinician

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disorder characterized by symptoms of esophageal dysfunction and eosinophil-predominant inflammation. Left untreated, EoE progresses to fibrous remodeling and stricture formation that impairs quality of life. Therefore, EoE requires either repeated treatments or maintenance therapy. Current guidelines recommend swallowed topical corticosteroids (STCs), proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), or dietary intervention as initial options to induce and maintain long-term disease remission. Impractical exclusive elemental diets and suboptimal allergy testing-directed food avoidance paved the way for empirical elimination diets. These are moderately effective and highly reproducible in inducing EoE remission and allow for identification of specific food triggers. Step-up strategies, including two- and four-food rather than six-food elimination diets, should be considered as initial approaches for dietary treatment in patients of all ages, as they reduce the need for endoscopic procedures, shorten diagnostic processing time, and avoid unnecessary restrictions. Formulations of STC originally designed for asthma therapy are suboptimal for EoE treatment, with new effervescent orodispersible tablets and viscose formulations designed to coat the esophageal mucosa providing increased effectiveness at reduced doses. The anti-inflammatory effects of PPI in EoE are independent from gastric acid secretion inhibition; despite evidence from observational research, PPIs are the most commonly prescribed first-line therapy for EoE due to their accessibility, low cost, and safety profile. Double doses of PPI only induce remission in half of EoE patients, irrespective of the drug used or patients' age. Inflammatory rather than stricturing EoE phenotype and treatment duration up to 12 weeks increase chances of achieving EoE remission. Most responders effectively maintain long-term remission with standard PPI doses. Finally, endoscopic dilation should be considered in patients with reduced esophageal caliber or persistent dysphagia despite histological remission. This article provides a state-of-the-art review and updated discussion of current therapies and newly developed options for EoE.

Proton pump inhibitor therapy reverses endoscopic features of fibrosis in eosinophilic esophagitis

BACKGROUND

Long-standing inflammation leads to esophageal remodeling with stricture formation in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). The ability of proton pump inhibitors (PPI) to reverse endoscopic features of fibrosis is still unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of a short course of PPI treatment in reducing endoscopic findings indicative of esophageal fibrosis in EoE patients.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis of the EoE CONNECT registry. Patients who received PPI to induce EoE remission were evaluated. Endoscopic features were graded using the EoE Endoscopic Reference Score (EREFS), with rings and strictures indicating fibrosis. Results were compared to those from patients treated with swallowed topic corticosteroids (STC).

RESULTS

Clinico-histological remission was achieved in 83/166 adult patients treated with PPI (50%) and in 65/79 (82%) treated with STC; among responders, 60 (36%) and 57 (72%) patients respectively achieved deep histological remission (<5 eosinophils/hpf). At baseline, mean±SD EREFS was lower in patients treated with PPI compared to those who received STC (p < 0.001). Short term treatment significantly reduced EREFS scores in patients treated either with PPI or STC as well as rings and strictures. Among patients treated with PPI, deep histological remission (<5 eosinophils/hpf) provided further reduction in total EREFS score.

CONCLUSION

Effective PPI therapy for EoE significantly reduced endoscopic esophageal fibrosis in the short term.

Nutritional approach to eosinophilic esophagitis: which diet and when

Dietary elimination therapy has been for a long time an option for patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) and remains the only therapy targeting the cause of the disease. Different dietary approaches have been described along the last 3 decades, and cumulative evidence has defined the effectiveness and usefulness of each approach. Elemental diets are highly effective to induce EoE remission, but unpractical in most patients. Allergy testing-directed food restrictions resulted inefficient to induce remission in a significant proportion of patients (especially adults) and show a low concordance with the dietary causes of EoE. Empiric elimination diets are currently considered the most effective drug-free treatment for patients of all ages with EoE, after widely providing reproducible results. Highly restrictive empiric six-food elimination diets have paved the way to most efficient and less restrictive step-up approaches, which now include four-food and two-food elimination diets. The potential role of milk-elimination, especially in children, should be also considered. Multiple factors including demographics, nutritional status, patient and family lifestyles, social and financial support, and acceptance of repeated endoscopies influence the results of dietary therapy. Dietary therapy in EoE should be patient centered, and the patients and/or their families together with the medical provider should participate in the decision to set up this treatment. This article updates recent knowledge on dietary therapy for EoE and provides guideline to choose the most suitable alternative for patients with EoE, as well as practical tips to achieve the best results in clinical practice.

Epidemiology and risk factors for eosinophilic esophagitis: lessons for clinicians

INTRODUCTION

The rapid expansion in the epidemiology of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is being documented, along with cumulative research assessing environmental exposures associated with EoE and susceptibility due to genetic variants.

AREAS COVERED

Incidence rates for EoE of 5-10 new cases per 100,000 inhabitants annually have shown an increase in recent reports of up to 20 in some countries; the highest prevalence being reported for Europe and North America, where EoE now affects more than 1 out of 1,000 people. EoE has been shown to be associated with several disorders, Th2-mediated atopies being the most common. Patients with EoE exhibit increased frequency of asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema, and EoE has been considered as a late component of the atopic march. Risk variants in TSLP, CAPN14 and LRCC32 genes, among others, have all been related to EoE, and interact with prenatal and early life exposure potentially modifying abundance and composition of gut microbiome. Dysregulated interactions between bacteria and mucosal immunity emerge as leading causes of EoE.

EXPERT OPINION

The expanding epidemiology of EoE, the resources needed and subsequent increasing healthcare costs require additional effort to optimize cost-effective management and unveil mechanisms that enhance the development of future preventive strategies.