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Didier A, Bourner M, Kleks G, Zolty A, Kumar B, Nichols T, Durynski K, Bender S, Gibison M, Murphy L, Ellis JC, Dong DW, Kashina A. Prospective fecal microbiomic biomarkers for chronic wasting disease. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0375022. [PMID: 38299851 PMCID: PMC10913453 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03750-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a naturally occurring prion disease in cervids that has been rapidly proliferating in the United States. Here, we investigated a potential link between CWD infection and gut microbiome by analyzing 50 fecal samples obtained from CWD-positive animals of different sexes from various regions in the USA compared to 50 CWD-negative controls using high throughput sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA and targeted metabolomics. Our analysis reveals promising trends in the gut microbiota that could potentially be CWD-dependent, including several bacterial taxa at each rank level, as well as taxa pairs, that can differentiate between CWD-negative and CWD-positive deer. Through machine-learning, these taxa and taxa pairs at each rank level could facilitate identification of around 70% of both the CWD-negative and the CWD-positive samples. Our results provide a potential tool for diagnostics and surveillance of CWD in the wild, as well as conceptual advances in our understanding of the disease.IMPORTANCEThis is a comprehensive study that tests the connection between the composition of the gut microbiome in deer in response to chronic wasting disease (CWD). We analyzed 50 fecal samples obtained from CWD-positive animals compared to 50 CWD-negative controls to identify CWD-dependent changes in the gut microbiome, matched with the analysis of fecal metabolites. Our results show promising trends suggesting that fecal microbial composition can directly correspond to CWD disease status. These results point to the microbial composition of the feces as a potential tool for diagnostics and surveillance of CWD in the wild, including non-invasive CWD detection in asymptomatic deer and deer habitats, and enable conceptual advances in our understanding of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Didier
- MilliporeSigma, Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | | | - Guy Kleks
- Sigma Aldrich Israel Ltd., Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Avihai Zolty
- Sigma Aldrich Israel Ltd., Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Brajendra Kumar
- Sigma Aldrich Chemical Pvt. Ltd., Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Tracy Nichols
- United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Karie Durynski
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Susan Bender
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michelle Gibison
- Wildlife Futures Program, Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lisa Murphy
- Wildlife Futures Program, Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Julie C. Ellis
- Wildlife Futures Program, Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Dawei W. Dong
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anna Kashina
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Mallikarjun A, Swartz B, Kane SA, Gibison M, Wilson I, Collins A, Moore MB, Charendoff I, Ellis J, Murphy LA, Nichols T, Otto CM. Canine detection of chronic wasting disease (CWD) in laboratory and field settings. Prion 2023; 17:16-28. [PMID: 36740856 PMCID: PMC9904315 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2023.2169519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy that affects both free-ranging and farmed cervid species, including mule deer, white-tailed deer, and elk (Odocoileus hemionus, Odocoileus virginianus, and Cervus canadensis). Due to the long incubation period and variability of clinical signs, CWD can expand and spread to new areas before they reach diagnostically detectable levels. Antemortem testing methods currently available can be difficult to obtain and to be applied to the large numbers required for adequate surveillance. However, key volatile biomarkers could be harnessed for non-invasive antemortem surveillance. Detection dogs are the most effective tool currently available for volatile detection; dogs can effectively complete wildlife surveys at rates surpassing that of humans. This study is the first to demonstrate that trained detection dogs can be used as an antemortem test for CWD. First, we trained three dogs to differentiate between CWD-positive and CWD-negative white-tailed deer faeces in a laboratory setting. Dogs spent significantly more time at the positive sample than the negative samples, suggesting that they differentiated between the positive and negative volatile signatures. We then trained the same dogs to search for CWD-positive faecal samples in a more naturalistic field setting. In the field, dogs found 8/11 CWD-positive samples and had an average false detection rate of 13%. These results suggest that dogs can be trained to differentiate CWD-positive faeces from CWD-negative faeces in both laboratory and field settings. Future studies will compare canine accuracy to other antemortem methods, as well as improved canine training methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amritha Mallikarjun
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA,CONTACT Amritha Mallikarjun School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Ben Swartz
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Sarah A. Kane
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Michelle Gibison
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Wildlife Futures Program, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Isabella Wilson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Amanda Collins
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Madison B. Moore
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Ila Charendoff
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Julie Ellis
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Wildlife Futures Program, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Lisa A. Murphy
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Wildlife Futures Program, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Tracy Nichols
- United States Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C, WA, USA
| | - Cynthia M. Otto
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA,School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences and Advanced Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
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3
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Priyanka, Srivastava S, Sharma S. Metabolomic insight into the synergistic mechanism of action of a bacterial consortium in plant growth promotion. J Biosci Bioeng 2022; 134:399-406. [PMID: 36088211 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2022.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
It has been established that a consortium consisting of compatible plant growth promoting rhizobacterial strains outperforms their individual impacts on plant attributes. While the phenomenon of synergism is extensively reported, the mechanism that underpins it is yet to be elucidated. In the present study the impact of three plant growth promoting bacteria, Azotobacter chroococcum (A), Priestia megaterium (formerly Bacillus megaterium) (B), and Pseudomonas sp. SK3 (P) was studied as a consortium on the growth attributes of pigeonpea. In addition, microbe-microbe interactions were investigated through metabolomic profiling to understand the mechanism of synergism. Plant growth experiments revealed that bacterial consortium A + B + P showed a significant increase in plant attributes such as shoot length, root length, fresh weight, and dry weight as compared to monocultures and two-membered consortia. Metabolomic profiling through high resolution liquid chromatograph mass spectrometer revealed the presence of a few bioactive compounds in the consortium that might play a potential role in the enhancement of biometric parameters of the plant. Several compounds, such as antipyrine, 6,6-dimethoxy-2,5,5-trimethyl-2-hexene, N-methyltryptamine, 2,2-dimethyl-3,4-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-2H-1-benzopyran-7-ol acetate, N6-hydroxy-l-lysine, and l-furosin, were detected in the metabolome of the consortium, which was unique among all the treatments. The study also detected a few metabolites involved in sphingolipid biosynthesis (ketosphinganine and sphinganine) known for cell signaling in the consortium. This unravels the possible mechanism of synergism between bacterial strains in a consortium. The metabolomic profile would be helpful to strategically develop unique and more effective consortia that are tailored to the soil type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
| | - Sonal Srivastava
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
| | - Shilpi Sharma
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India.
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Doty AC, Wilson AD, Forse LB, Risch TS. Biomarker Metabolites Discriminate between Physiological States of Field, Cave and White-nose Syndrome Diseased Bats. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22031031. [PMID: 35161777 PMCID: PMC8840073 DOI: 10.3390/s22031031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions using electronic-nose (e-nose) devices has shown promise for early detection of white-nose syndrome (WNS) in bats. Tricolored bats, Perimyotis subflavus, from three separate sampling groups defined by environmental conditions, levels of physical activity, and WNS-disease status were captured temporarily for collection of VOC emissions to determine relationships between these combinations of factors and physiological states, Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd)-infection status, and metabolic conditions. Physiologically active (non-torpid) healthy individuals were captured outside of caves in Arkansas and Louisiana. In addition, healthy and WNS-diseased torpid bats were sampled within caves in Arkansas. Whole-body VOC emissions from bats were collected using portable air-collection and sampling-chamber devices in tandem. Electronic aroma-detection data using three-dimensional Principal Component Analysis provided strong evidence that the three groups of bats had significantly different e-nose aroma signatures, indicative of different VOC profiles. This was confirmed by differences in peak numbers, peak areas, and tentative chemical identities indicated by chromatograms from dual-column GC-analyses. The numbers and quantities of VOCs present in whole-body emissions from physiologically active healthy field bats were significantly greater than those of torpid healthy and diseased cave bats. Specific VOCs were identified as chemical biomarkers of healthy and diseased states, environmental conditions (outside and inside of caves), and levels of physiological activity. These results suggest that GC/E-nose dual-technologies based on VOC-detection and analyses of physiological states, provide noninvasive alternative means for early assessments of Pd-infection, WNS-disease status, and other physiological states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C. Doty
- Department of Biology, California State University Bakersfield, Bakersfield, CA 93311, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR 72467, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-661-654-6836
| | - A. Dan Wilson
- Pathology Department, Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, Center for Forest Genetics & Ecosystems Biology, Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 432 Stoneville Road, Stoneville, MS 38776, USA; (A.D.W.); (L.B.F.)
| | - Lisa B. Forse
- Pathology Department, Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, Center for Forest Genetics & Ecosystems Biology, Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 432 Stoneville Road, Stoneville, MS 38776, USA; (A.D.W.); (L.B.F.)
| | - Thomas S. Risch
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR 72467, USA;
- Arkansas Biosciences Institute, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR 72467, USA
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Jaimes-Mogollón AL, Welearegay TG, Salumets A, Ionescu R. Review on Volatolomic Studies as a Frontier Approach in Animal Research. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2021; 5:e2000397. [PMID: 33844886 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202000397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive review of the research studies in volatolomics performed on animals so far. At first, the procedures proposed for the collection, preconcentration, and storing of the volatile organic compounds emitted by various biological samples of different animals are presented and discussed. Next, the results obtained in the analysis of the collected volatile samples with analytical equipment are shown. The possible volatile biomarkers identified for various diseases are highlighted for different types of diseases, animal species, and biological samples analyzed. The chemical classes of these compounds, as well as the biomarkers found in a higher number of animal diseases, are indicated, and their possible origin is analyzed. The studies that dealt with the diagnosis of various diseases from sample measurement with electronic nose systems are also presented and discussed. The paper ends with a final remark regarding the necessity of optimization and standardization of sample collection and analysis procedures for obtaining meaningful results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tesfalem G Welearegay
- The Ångström Laboratory, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 75103, Sweden
| | - Andres Salumets
- COMBIVET ERA Chair, Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, 51006, Estonia.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51014, Estonia.,Competence Centre on Health Technologies, Tartu, 50411, Estonia
| | - Radu Ionescu
- COMBIVET ERA Chair, Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, 51006, Estonia
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de Jesús Beleño-Sáenz K, Cáceres-Tarazona JM, Nol P, Jaimes-Mogollón AL, Gualdrón-Guerrero OE, Durán-Acevedo CM, Barasona JA, Vicente J, Torres MJ, Welearegay TG, Österlund L, Rhyan J, Ionescu R. Non-Invasive Method to Detect Infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Wild Boar by Measurement of Volatile Organic Compounds Obtained from Feces with an Electronic Nose System. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21020584. [PMID: 33467480 PMCID: PMC7829825 DOI: 10.3390/s21020584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
More effective methods to detect bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, in wildlife, is of paramount importance for preventing disease spread to other wild animals, livestock, and human beings. In this study, we analyzed the volatile organic compounds emitted by fecal samples collected from free-ranging wild boar captured in Doñana National Park, Spain, with an electronic nose system based on organically-functionalized gold nanoparticles. The animals were separated by the age group for performing the analysis. Adult (>24 months) and sub-adult (12-24 months) animals were anesthetized before sample collection, whereas the juvenile (<12 months) animals were manually restrained while collecting the sample. Good accuracy was obtained for the adult and sub-adult classification models: 100% during the training phase and 88.9% during the testing phase for the adult animals, and 100% during both the training and testing phase for the sub-adult animals, respectively. The results obtained could be important for the further development of a non-invasive and less expensive detection method of bovine tuberculosis in wildlife populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin de Jesús Beleño-Sáenz
- Mechatronics Engineering Department, Universidad Autónoma del Caribe, Barranquilla 080020, Colombia;
- GISM Group, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Pamplona, Pamplona 543050, Colombia; (J.M.C.-T.); (A.L.J.-M.); (O.E.G.-G.); (C.M.D.-A.)
| | - Juan Martín Cáceres-Tarazona
- GISM Group, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Pamplona, Pamplona 543050, Colombia; (J.M.C.-T.); (A.L.J.-M.); (O.E.G.-G.); (C.M.D.-A.)
| | - Pauline Nol
- Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection, Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA; (P.N.); (J.R.)
| | - Aylen Lisset Jaimes-Mogollón
- GISM Group, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Pamplona, Pamplona 543050, Colombia; (J.M.C.-T.); (A.L.J.-M.); (O.E.G.-G.); (C.M.D.-A.)
| | - Oscar Eduardo Gualdrón-Guerrero
- GISM Group, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Pamplona, Pamplona 543050, Colombia; (J.M.C.-T.); (A.L.J.-M.); (O.E.G.-G.); (C.M.D.-A.)
| | - Cristhian Manuel Durán-Acevedo
- GISM Group, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Pamplona, Pamplona 543050, Colombia; (J.M.C.-T.); (A.L.J.-M.); (O.E.G.-G.); (C.M.D.-A.)
| | - Jose Angel Barasona
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Joaquin Vicente
- SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC, ETSIA Ciudad Real, University of Castilla La Mancha & CSIC, 13003 Ciudad Real, Spain;
| | - María José Torres
- Biomedical Institute of Sevilla (IBiS), University of Seville, University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC, 41071 Seville, Spain;
| | - Tesfalem Geremariam Welearegay
- The Ångström Laboratory, Department of Materials Science and Engineering Sciences, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 35, 75103 Uppsala, Sweden; (T.G.W.); (L.Ö.)
| | - Lars Österlund
- The Ångström Laboratory, Department of Materials Science and Engineering Sciences, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 35, 75103 Uppsala, Sweden; (T.G.W.); (L.Ö.)
| | - Jack Rhyan
- Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Veterinary Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection, Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA; (P.N.); (J.R.)
| | - Radu Ionescu
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
- Correspondence:
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Rodríguez-Hernández P, Cardador MJ, Arce L, Rodríguez-Estévez V. Analytical Tools for Disease Diagnosis in Animals via Fecal Volatilome. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2020; 52:917-932. [PMID: 33180561 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2020.1843130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Volatilome analysis is growing in attention for the diagnosis of diseases in animals and humans. In particular, volatilome analysis in fecal samples is starting to be proposed as a fast, easy and noninvasive method for disease diagnosis. Volatilome comprises volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are produced during both physiological and patho-physiological processes. Thus, VOCs from a pathological condition often differ from those of a healthy state and therefore the VOCs profile can be used in the detection of some diseases. Due to their strengths and advantages, feces are currently being used to obtain information related to health status in animals. However, they are complex samples, that can present problems for some analytical techniques and require special consideration in their use and preparation before analysis. This situation demands an effort to clarify which analytic options are currently being used in the research context to analyze the possibilities these offer, with the final objectives of contributing to develop a standardized methodology and to exploit feces potential as a diagnostic matrix. The current work reviews the studies focused on the diagnosis of animal diseases through fecal volatilome in order to evaluate the analytical methods used and their advantages and limitations. The alternatives found in the literature for sampling, storage, sample pretreatment, measurement and data treatment have been summarized, considering all the steps involved in the analytical process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M J Cardador
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Fine Chemistry and Nanochemistry, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - L Arce
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Fine Chemistry and Nanochemistry, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
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Tennant JM, Li M, Henderson DM, Tyer ML, Denkers ND, Haley NJ, Mathiason CK, Hoover EA. Shedding and stability of CWD prion seeding activity in cervid feces. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227094. [PMID: 32126066 PMCID: PMC7053746 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
CWD is an emergent prion disease that now affects cervid species on three continents. CWD is efficiently spread in wild and captive populations, likely through both direct animal contact and environmental contamination. Here, by longitudinally assaying in feces of CWD-exposed white-tailed deer by RT-QuIC, we demonstrate fecal shedding of prion seeding activity months before onset of clinical symptoms and continuing throughout the disease course. We also examine the impact of simulated environmental conditions such as repeated freeze-thaw cycles and desiccation on fecal prion seeding activity. We found that while multiple (n = 7) freeze-thaw cycles substantially decreased fecal seeding activity, desiccation had little to no effect on seeding activity. Finally, we examined whether RT-QuIC testing of landscape fecal deposits could distinguish two premises with substantial known CWD prevalence from one in which no CWD-infected animals had been detected. In the above pilot study, this distinction was possible. We conclude that fecal shedding of CWD prions occurs over much of the disease course, that environmental factors influence prion seeding activity, and that it is feasible to detect fecal prion contamination using RT-QuIC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M. Tennant
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Manci Li
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Davin M. Henderson
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Margaret L. Tyer
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Nathaniel D. Denkers
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Haley
- Midwestern University, College of Graduate Studies, Glendale, AZ, United States of America
| | - Candace K. Mathiason
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
| | - Edward A. Hoover
- Prion Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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