Key factors influencing ADME properties of therapeutic proteins: A need for ADME characterization in drug discovery and development

A novel in vitro serum stability assay for antibody therapeutics incorporating internal standards

Antibody-based therapeutics have demonstrated remarkable therapeutic benefit, but their susceptibility to biotransformation and degradation in the body can affect their safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) profiles. In vitro stability assessments play a pivotal role in proactively identifying potential liabilities of antibody therapeutics prior to animal studies. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based in vitro stability assays has been developed and adopted in the biopharmaceutical industry for the characterization of antibody-based therapeutics. However, these methodologies often overlook operational error and random variation during sample preparation and analysis, leading to inaccurate stability estimation. To address this limitation, we have developed an LC-MS-based in vitro serum stability assessment that incorporates two internal standards (ISs), National Institute of Standards and Technology monoclonal antibody (NISTmAb) and its crystallizable fragment (Fc), to improve assay performance. Our method involves three steps: incubation of antibody therapeutics along with an IS in biological matrices, affinity purification, and LC-MS analysis. The stability of 21 monoclonal or bispecific antibodies was assessed in serums of preclinical species using this method. Our results showed improved accuracy and precision of recovery calculations with the incorporation of ISs, enabling a more confident stability assessment even in the absence of biotransformation or aggregation. In vitro stability correlated with in vivo exposure, suggesting that this in vitro assay could serve as a routine screening tool to select and advance stable antibody therapeutic candidates for subsequent in vivo studies.

Antibiotic conjugates: Using molecular Trojan Horses to overcome drug resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a global health crisis due to the rapid emergence of multi-drug-resistant bacteria. The paucity of novel antibiotics in the clinical pipeline has exacerbated this issue, thereby warranting the development of new antibacterial therapies. The 'Trojan Horse' strategy entails conjugating antibiotics with bioactive components that not only facilitate the entry of antibiotic molecules into bacterial cells by circumventing the membrane barriers, but also augment the effects of conventional antibiotics against recalcitrant pathogens. These Trojan Horse elements can also serve as a promising tool for repurposing drugs with hitherto unexamined antimicrobial activity, or drugs with limited clinical utility due to considerable toxic side effects. In this review, we have discussed the current state of research on antibiotic conjugates with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and the iron-chelating siderophores. The rationale and mechanisms of different antibiotic conjugates have been summarized, and the preclinical and clinical evidence pertaining to the activity of these conjugates against drug-resistant pathogens have been reviewed. Furthermore, the challenges associated with the clinical translation of these novel antimicrobials, and the future research directions have also been discussed. While antibiotic conjugates offer an attractive alternative to conventional antimicrobials, there are several obstacles to their clinical translation. A greater understanding of the mechanisms underlying AMR, and continuing advances in genetic engineering, synthetic biology, and bioinformatics will be crucial in designing more selective, potent, and safe antibiotic conjugates for tackling multi-drug resistant (MDR) infections.

Therapeutically targeting endometrial cancer in preclinical models by ICAM1 antibody-drug conjugates

OBJECTIVE

The incidence of mortality and morbidity from endometrial cancer (EC) is increasing annually, and there is a paucity of effective targeted therapies for the condition. Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) represent a promising approach to tumor-targeted therapy. In this study, we aim to identify a novel molecular target for the preclinical development of EC-targeted ADCs.

METHODS

Through quantitative and unbiased bioinformatics analyses intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM1) was identified as a potential cell membrane target. Two ADCs, ICAM1-MMAE and ICAM1-DXd, were subsequently developed by conjugating ICAM1 monoclonal antibodies with microtubule inhibitors and DNA topoisomerase inhibitors, respectively. The preclinical efficacy and biosafety of these ICAM1 ADCs were validated in both in vitro and in vivo models. Furthermore, transcriptomic analysis was conducted to elucidate the therapeutic effects of the ICAM1 ADCs.

RESULTS

Quantitative flow screening and bioinformatics analyses revealed significant overexpression of ICAM1 in EC. ICAM1-MMAE and ICAM1-DXd were developed using clinically effective linkers and payloads. In preclinical models, ICAM1 ADCs showed superior antitumor efficacy compared to standard chemotherapy, achieving sustained tumor regression with an excellent safety profile in both subcutaneous and orthotopic xenograft models. Transcriptomic analysis further revealed that ICAM1-DXd potently activated tumor immunity.

CONCLUSIONS

ICAM1 was identified as a promising cell membrane protein target for ADC development in EC. As-synthesized ICAM1 ADCs demonstrated potent antitumor activity, favorable biosafety profiles in vitro and in vivo, and the ability to activate tumor immunity. These findings support the potential of ICAM1 ADCs as a therapeutic strategy and warrant further investigation in clinical studies.

Exploring phytochemicals and marine natural products as alternative therapeutic agents targeting phosphotransacetylase (PTA) in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: An underexplored drug target

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), remains a significant global health threat due to its widespread prevalence and increasing drug resistance. This study targets phosphotransacetylase (PTA), an essential enzyme in acetate metabolism, as a potential therapeutic target. A comprehensive multi-tiered virtual screening approach was employed to identify potent phytochemicals and marine natural products (MNPs) from five databases (AMMPDB, CMNPD, MNPD, Seaweed and SPECS). Five promising bioactive molecules (AMMPDB10473, CMNPD23347, CMNPD5918, MNPD6660, and SPECS-AK-693) were identified, showing high docking scores (-8.17 to -10.83 kcal/mol) and MM-GBSA binding energy scores (-47.51 to -59.14 kcal/mol). These molecules adhered to Lipinski's rule of five (Ro5) and demonstrated acceptable pharmacokinetic profiles. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations further validated the interaction potential of these molecules through HOMO and LUMO analysis. Long-range molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) over 300 ns confirmed the structural stability and enhanced hydrogen-bonding potential of the natural products-PTA complexes. Principal component analysis (PCA) and free energy landscape (FEL) contour plots revealed a single dominant energy basin, indicating structural stability and limited conformational flexibility of the complexes. Additionally, MMPBSA analysis corroborated the strong binding affinities of the identified hit molecules with PTA. Critical 'hot spot' residues (Phe516, Cys530, Ala531, and Tyr639) were identified, contributing significantly to the structural stability and binding energy of the complexes. This computational study offers valuable insights into the potential of these lead molecules for combating TB, providing a foundation for experimental validation and innovative therapeutic development, and paving the way for future research and breakthroughs in TB treatment.

Uncovering the interleukin-12 pharmacokinetic desensitization mechanism and its consequences with mathematical modeling

The cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a potential immunotherapy because of its ability to induce a Th1 immune response. However, success in the clinic has been limited due to a phenomenon called IL-12 desensitization - the trend where repeated exposure to IL-12 leads to reduced IL-12 concentrations (pharmacokinetics) and biological effects (pharmacodynamics). Here, we investigated IL-12 pharmacokinetic desensitization via a modeling approach to (i) validate proposed mechanisms in literature and (ii) develop a mathematical model capable of predicting IL-12 pharmacokinetic desensitization. Two potential causes of IL-12 pharmacokinetic desensitization were identified: increased clearance or reduced bioavailability of IL-12 following repeated doses. Increased IL-12 clearance was previously proposed to occur due to the upregulation of IL-12 receptor on T cells that causes increased receptor-mediated clearance in the serum. However, our model with this mechanism, the accelerated-clearance model, failed to capture trends in clinical trial data. Alternatively, our novel reduced-bioavailability model assumed that upregulation of IL-12 receptor on T cells in the lymphatic system leads to IL-12 sequestration, inhibiting the transport to the blood. This model accurately fits IL-12 pharmacokinetic data from three clinical trials, supporting its biological relevance. Using this model, we analyzed the model parameter space to illustrate that IL-12 desensitization occurs over a robust range of parameter values and to identify the conditions required for desensitization. We next simulated local, continuous IL-12 delivery and identified several methods to mitigate systemic IL-12 exposure. Ultimately, our results provide quantitative validation of our proposed mechanism and allow for accurate prediction of IL-12 pharmacokinetics over repeated doses.

Quest for discovering novel CDK12 inhibitor

CDK12 is essential for cellular processes like RNA processing, transcription, and cell cycle regulation, inhibiting cancer cell growth and facilitating macrophage invasion. CDK12 is a significant oncogenic factor in various cancers, including HER2-positive breast cancer, Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, Hepatocellular carcinoma, prostate cancer, and Ewing sarcoma. It is also regarded as a potential biomarker, emphasizing its broader significance in oncology. Targeting CDK12 offers a promising strategy to develop therapy. Various monoclonal antibodies have drawn wide attention, but they are expensive compared to small-molecule inhibitors, limiting their accessibility and affordability for patients. Consequently, this research aims to identify effective CDK12 inhibitors using comprehensive high-throughput virtual screening. RASPD protocol has been employed to screen three different databases against the target followed by drug-likeness, molecular docking, ADME, toxicity, Consensus molecular docking, MD Simulation, and in-vitro studies MTT assay. The research conducted yielded one compound ZINC11784547 has demonstrated robust binding affinity, favorable ADME features, less toxicity, remarkable stability, and cytotoxic effect. The identified compound holds promise for promoting cancer cell death through CDK12 inhibition.

Truncated recombinant Jagged1 fused with human IgG1 Fc activates Notch target genes in human periodontal ligament cells

OBJECTIVE

Jagged1, a Notch ligand, is essential for osteogenic differentiation in human periodontal ligament cells (hPDLs) by interacting with Notch2 to induce osteogenic markers, alkaline phosphatase activity, and mineral deposition. However, its large size hampers absorption and distribution of biomaterials. This study aimed to identify the critical region of Jagged1 necessary for its interaction with Notch2 to create a truncated version that retains osteogenic activity but with improved delivery characteristics.

METHODS

Truncated versions of Jagged1 were designed by deleting C-terminal regions, focusing on the importance of the N-terminal domain. Both truncated and full-length Jagged1 were fused with human IgG1 Fc (Jagged1-Fc) and expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. hPDLs treated with these constructs were analyzed for Notch target gene expression using real-time PCR. Mineral deposition was assessed using alizarin red S staining.

RESULTS

Both truncated and full-length Jagged1-Fc increased the expression of Notch target genes (Hes1, Hey1, and ALP) in hPDLs, indicating successful activation of Notch signaling. However, only the full-length Jagged1-Fc enhanced mineral deposition, while the truncated version did not.

CONCLUSIONS

Full-length Jagged1-Fc is required for mineral deposition and complete osteogenic differentiation in hPDLs. The truncated versions, while capable of activating Notch signaling, are ineffective in promoting mineralization, underscoring the importance of the entire protein for clinical applications in bone regeneration.

Helichrysum populifolium Compounds Inhibit MtrCDE Efflux Pump Transport Protein for the Potential Management of Gonorrhoea Infection

The progressive development of resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae to almost all available antibiotics has made it crucial to develop novel approaches to tackling multi-drug resistance (MDR). One of the primary causes of antibiotic resistance is the over-expression of the MtrCDE efflux pump protein, making this protein a vital target for fighting against antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in N. gonorrhoeae. This study was aimed at evaluating the potential MtrCDE efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) and their stability in treating gonorrhoea infection. This is significant because finding novel EPIs would allow for the longer maintenance of antibiotics at therapeutic levels, thereby prolonging the susceptibility of currently available antibiotics. A virtual screening of the selected Helichrysum populifolium compounds (4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, apigeninin-7-glucoside, and carvacrol) was conducted to evaluate their potential EPI activity. An integrated computational framework consisting of molecular docking (MD), molecular mechanics generalized born, and surface area solvation (MMGBSA) analysis, molecular dynamics simulations (MDS), and absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties calculations were conducted. Of the tested compounds, 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid revealed the highest molecular docking binding energies (-8.8 kcal/mol), equivalent MMGBSA binding free energy (-54.82 kcal/mol), indicative of consistent binding affinity with the MtrD protein, reduced deviations and flexibility (root mean square deviation (RMSD) of 5.65 Å) and, given by root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) of 1.877 Å. Carvacrol revealed a docking score of -6.0 kcal/mol and a MMGBSA computed BFE of -16.69 kcal/mol, demonstrating the lowest binding affinity to the MtrD efflux pump compared to the remaining test compounds. However, the average RMSD (4.45 Å) and RMSF (1.638 Å) of carvacrol-bound MtrD protein showed no significant difference from the unbound MtrD protein, except for the reference compounds, implying consistent MtrD conformation throughout simulations and indicates a desirable feature during drug design. Additionally, carvacrol obeyed the Lipinski rule of five which confirmed the compound's drug-likeness properties making it the most promising EPI candidate based on its combined attributes of a reasonable binding affinity, sustained stability during MDS, its obedience to the Lipinski rule of five and compliance with drug-likeness criteria. An in vitro validation of the potential EPI activities of H. populifolium compounds confirmed that 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid reduced the expulsion of the bis-benzimide dye by MtrCDE pump, while carvacrol showed low accumulation compared to other compounds. While 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid demonstrated the highest binding affinity in computational analysis and an EPI activity in vitro, it showed lower stability compared to the other compounds, as indicated in MDS. This leaves carvacrol, as a better EPI candidate for the management of gonorrhoea infection.

Discovery of α-amylase and α-glucosidase dual inhibitors from NPASS database for management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A chemoinformatic approach

Postprandial hyperglycemia, typical manifestation of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), is associated with notable global morbidity and mortality. Preventing the advancement of this condition by delaying the rate of glucose absorption through inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymatic activities is of utmost importance. Finding a safe antidiabetic drug is essential since those that are currently on the market have drawbacks like unpleasant side effects. The current study utilized computer-aided drug design (CADD), as a quick and affordable method to find a substitute drug template that can be used to control postprandial hyperglycemia by modulating the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. The Natural Products Activity and Species database (NPASS) (30,926 compounds) was screened in silico, with a focus on evaluating drug-likeness, toxicity profiles and ability to bind on a target protein. Two molecules NPC204580 (Chrotacumine C) and NPC137813 (1-O-(2-Methoxy-4-Acetylphenyl)-6-O-(E-Cinnamoyl)-Beta-D-Glucopyranoside) were identified as potential dual inhibitors for α-amylase and α-glucosidase with free binding energies of -14.46 kcal/mol and -12.58 kcal/mol for α-amylase, and -8.42 kcal/mol and -8.76 kcal/mol for α-glucosidase, respectively. The molecules showed ionic, H-bonding and hydrophobic interactions with critical amino acid residues of both enzymes. Moreover, 100 ns molecular dynamic simulations showed that both molecules are stable on the receptors' active sites based on root mean square deviation (RMSD), root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), and the Generalized Born surface area (GBSA) energy calculated. The two compounds are thus promising therapeutic agents for T2DM that merit further investigation due to their excellent binding energies, encouraging pharmacokinetics, toxicity profiles, and stability as demonstrated in simulated studies.

Pharmacokinetic and preclinical safety studies of endolysin-based therapeutic for intravenous administration

Pharmacokinetics and safety studies of innovative drugs is an essential part of drug development process. Previously we have developed a novel drug for intravenous administration (lyophilizate) containing modified endolysin LysECD7-SMAP that showed notable antibacterial effect in different animal models of systemic infections. Here we present data on pharmacokinetics of endolysin in mice after single and multiple injections. Time-concentration curves were obtained, and pharmacokinetic parameters for preparation (C0, kel t1/2, AUC0-∞, MRT, ClT, Vss) were calculated. It was shown that although endolysin is rather short-lived in blood serum (t1/2 = 12.5 min), the therapeutic concentrations of LysECD7-SMAP (in degraded and non-degraded form) were detected for 60 minutes after injection that is sufficient for antibacterial effect. Based on the obtained data, it was proposed that endolysin distributes presumably in murine blood, degrades in blood and liver, and is eliminated via glomerular filtration. Safety profile of the preparation relating to general toxicity, immunotoxicity and allergenicity was assessed in rodents. It was demonstrated that LysECD7-SMAP in potential therapeutic (12.5 mg/kg), 10-fold (125 mg/kg) and 40-fold (500 mg/kg) doses showed no signs of intoxication and significant abnormalities after single and repeated i.v. administrations, preparation was non-immunogenic and induced minor and reversible allergic reaction in animals.

A minimal physiologically based pharmacokinetic model to study the combined effect of antibody size, charge, and binding affinity to FcRn/antigen on antibody pharmacokinetics

Protein therapeutics have revolutionized the treatment of a wide range of diseases. While they have distinct physicochemical characteristics that influence their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties, the relationship between the physicochemical properties and PK is still largely unknown. In this work we present a minimal physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (mPBPK) model that incorporates a multivariate quantitative relation between a therapeutic's physicochemical parameters and its corresponding ADME properties. The model's compound-specific input includes molecular weight, molecular size (Stoke's radius), molecular charge, binding affinity to FcRn, and specific antigen affinity. Through derived and fitted empirical relationships, the model demonstrates the effect of these compound-specific properties on antibody disposition in both plasma and peripheral tissues using observed PK data in mice and humans. The mPBPK model applies the two-pore hypothesis to predict size-based clearance and exposure of full-length antibodies (150 kDa) and antibody fragments (50-100 kDa) within a onefold error. We quantitatively relate antibody charge and PK parameters like uptake rate, non-specific binding affinity, and volume of distribution to capture the relatively faster clearance of positively charged mAb as compared to negatively charged mAb. The model predicts the terminal plasma clearance of slightly positively and negatively charged antibody in humans within a onefold error. The mPBPK model presented in this work can be used to predict the target-mediated disposition of a drug when compound-specific and target-specific properties are known. To our knowledge, a combined effect of antibody weight, size, charge, FcRn, and antigen has not been incorporated and studied in a single mPBPK model previously. By conclusively incorporating and relating a multitude of protein's physicochemical properties to observed PK, our mPBPK model aims to contribute as a platform approach in the early stages of drug development where many of these properties can be optimized to improve a molecule's PK and ultimately its efficacy.

Opportunities for nanomaterials in enzyme therapy

In recent years, enzyme therapy strategies have rapidly evolved to catalyze essential biochemical reactions with therapeutic potential. These approaches hold particular promise in addressing rare genetic disorders, cancer treatment, neurodegenerative conditions, wound healing, inflammation management, and infectious disease control, among others. There are several primary reasons for the utilization of enzymes as therapeutics: their substrate specificity, their biological compatibility, and their ability to generate a high number of product molecules per enzyme unit. These features have encouraged their application in enzyme replacement therapy where the enzyme serves as the therapeutic agent to rectify abnormal metabolic and physiological processes, enzyme prodrug therapy where the enzyme initiates a clinical effect by activating prodrugs, and enzyme dynamic or starving therapy where the enzyme acts upon host substrate molecules. Currently, there are >20 commercialized products based on therapeutic enzymes, but approval rates are considerably lower than other biologicals. This has stimulated nanobiotechnology in the last years to develop nanoparticle-based solutions that integrate therapeutic enzymes. This approach aims to enhance stability, prevent rapid clearance, reduce immunogenicity, and even enable spatio-temporal activation of the therapeutic catalyst. This comprehensive review delves into emerging trends in the application of therapeutic enzymes, with a particular emphasis on the synergistic opportunities presented by incorporating enzymes into nanomaterials. Such integration holds the promise of enhancing existing therapies or even paving the way for innovative nanotherapeutic approaches.

Evaluation of intra- and inter-individual variations in plasma belimumab concentrations in adult patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

In this study, plasma belimumab concentrations were measured over the course of treatment in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients on belimumab therapy, and intra- and interindividual variations in plasma belimumab concentration were evaluated. A single-center prospective study was conducted at Oita University Hospital to evaluate trough plasma concentrations over the course of treatment in 13 SLE patients treated with intravenous belimumab. Plasma belimumab concentrations were measured by a validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method. The median age of the patients was 40 (interquartile range: 35-51) years and the median weight was 51.8 (47.0-58.1) kg. A mean of 9.4 (range: 1-13) blood samples was collected per patient at routine visits. The mean (± SD) plasma belimumab concentration was 33.4 ± 11.9 μg/mL in the patient with the lowest concentration and 170.0 ± 16.6 μg/mL in the patient with the highest concentration, indicating a 5-fold difference between patients. On the other hand, the within-patient coefficient of variation ranged from 7.1% to 35.7%, showing no large variations. No significant correlation was observed between plasma belimumab concentration and belimumab dose (mg/kg) (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient = 0.22, p = .54). Examinations of trough plasma belimumab concentrations over the course of treatment in patients with SLE showed small intraindividual variation but large interindividual variation. Plasma belimumab trough concentration varied widely among patients administered the approved dose.

Pharmacokinetics and Preclinical Safety Studies of Modified Endolysin-based Gel for Topical Application

Antibacterial therapy with phage-encoded endolysins or their modified derivatives with improved antibacterial, biochemical and pharmacokinetic properties is one of the most promising strategies that can supply existing antibacterial drugs array. Gram-negative bacteria-induced infections treatment is especially challenging because of rapidly spreading bacterial resistance. We have developed modified endolysin LysECD7-SMAP with a significant antibacterial activity and broad spectra of action against gram-negative bacteria. Endolysin was formulated in a bactericidal gel for topical application with pronounced effectivity in local animal infectious models. Here we present preclinical safety studies and pharmacokinetics of LysECD7-SMAP-based gel. We have detected LysECD7-SMAP in the skin and underlying muscle at therapeutic concentrations when the gel is applied topically to intact or injured skin. Moreover, the protein does not enter the bloodstream, and has no systemic bioavailability, assuming no systemic adverse effects. In studies of general toxicology, local tolerance, and immunotoxicology it was approved that LysECD7-SMAP gel local application results in the absence of toxic effects after single and multiple administration. Thus, LysECD7-SMAP-containing gel has appropriate pharmacokinetics and can be considered as safe that supports the initiation of the phase I clinical trials of novel antibacterial drug intending to treat acute wound infections caused by resistant gram-negative bacteria.

Pharmacogenomics: A Genetic Approach to Drug Development and Therapy

The majority of the well-known pharmacogenomics research used in the medical sciences contributes to our understanding of medication interactions. It has a significant impact on treatment and drug development. The broad use of pharmacogenomics is required for the progress of therapy. The main focus is on how genes and an intricate gene system affect the body's reaction to medications. Novel biomarkers that help identify a patient group that is more or less likely to respond to a certain medication have been discovered as a result of recent developments in the field of clinical therapeutics. It aims to improve customized therapy by giving the appropriate drug at the right dose at the right time and making sure that the right prescriptions are issued. A combination of genetic, environmental, and patient variables that impact the pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics of medications results in interindividual variance in drug response. Drug development, illness susceptibility, and treatment efficacy are all impacted by pharmacogenomics. The purpose of this work is to give a review that might serve as a foundation for the creation of new pharmacogenomics applications, techniques, or strategies.

Exploring the Antibacterial Potential of Artemisia judaica Compounds Targeting the Hydrolase/Antibiotic Protein in Klebsiella pneumoniae: In Vitro and In Silico Investigations

Carbapenem antibiotic resistance is an emerging medical concern. Bacteria that possess the Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) protein, an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of carbapenem antibiotics, have exhibited remarkable resistance to traditional and even modern therapeutic approaches. This study aimed to identify potential natural drug candidates sourced from the leaves of Artemisia judaica (A. judaica). The phytoconstituents present in A. judaica dried leaves were extracted using ethanol 80%. A reasonable amount of the extract was used to identify these phytochemicals via gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). One hundred twenty-two bioactive compounds from A. judaica were identified and subjected to docking analysis against the target bacterial protein. Four compounds (PubChem CID: 6917974, 159099, 628694, and 482788) were selected based on favorable docking scores (-9, -7.8, -7.7, and -7.5 kcal/mol). This computational investigation highlights the potential of these four compounds as promising antibacterial candidates against the specific KPC protein. Additionally, in vitro antibacterial assays using A. judaica extracts were conducted. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against the bacterium K. pneumonia was 125 μg/mL. Well-disk diffusion tests exhibited inhibition zones ranging from 10.3 ± 0.5 mm to 17 ± 0.5 mm at different concentrations, and time-kill kinetics at 12 h indicated effective inhibition of bacterial growth by A. judaica leaf extracts. Our findings have revealed the pharmaceutical potential of Artemisia judaica as a natural source for drug candidates against carbapenem-resistant pathogens.

Antibody-Antibiotic Conjugates: A Comprehensive Review on Their Therapeutic Potentials Against BacterialInfections

INTRODUCTION

Antibodies are significant agents in the immune system and have proven to be effective in treating bacterial infections. With the advancement of antibody engineering in recent decades, antibody therapy has evolved widely.

AIM

This review aimed to investigate a new method as a therapeutic platform for the treatment of bacterial infections and explore the novel features of this method in conferring pathogen specificity to broad-spectrum antibiotics.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A literature review was conducted addressing the following topics about antibody-antibiotic conjugates (AACs): (1) structure and mechanism of action; (2) clinical effectiveness; (3) advantages and disadvantages.

RESULT

Antibody conjugates are designed to build upon the progress made in the development of monoclonal antibodies for the treatment of diseases. Despite the growing emergence of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria worldwide, novel antimicrobials have not been sufficiently expanded to combat the global crisis of antibiotic resistance. A recently developed strategy for the treatment of infectious diseases is the use of AACs, which are specifically activated only in host cells.

CONCLUSION

A novel therapeutic AAC employs an antibody to deliver the antibiotic to the bacteria. The AACs can release potent antibacterial components that unconjugated forms may not exhibit with an appropriate therapeutic index. This review highlights how this science has guided the design principles of an impressive AAC and discusses how the AAC model promises to enhance the antibiotic effect against bacterial infections.

Regulation of immunomodulatory networks by Nrf2-activation in immune cells: Redox control and therapeutic potential in inflammatory diseases

Inflammatory diseases present a serious health challenge due to their widespread prevalence and the severe impact on patients' lives. In the quest to alleviate the burden of these diseases, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) has emerged as a pivotal player. As a transcription factor intimately involved in cellular defense against metabolic and oxidative stress, Nrf2's role in modulating the inflammatory responses of immune cells has garnered significant attention. Recent findings suggest that Nrf2's ability to alter the redox status of cells underlies its regulatory effects on immune responses. Our review delves into preclinical and clinical evidence that underscores the complex influence of Nrf2 activators on immune cell phenotypes, particularly in the inflammatory milieu. By offering a detailed analysis of Nrf2's role in different immune cell populations, we cast light on the potential of Nrf2 activators in shaping the immune response towards a more regulated state, mitigating the adverse effects of inflammation through modeling redox status of immune cells. Furthermore, we explore the innovative use of nanoencapsulation techniques that enhance the delivery and efficacy of Nrf2 activators, potentially advancing the treatment strategies for inflammatory ailments. We hope this review will stimulate the development and expansion of Nrf2-targeted treatments that could substantially improve outcomes for patients suffering from a broad range of inflammatory diseases.

Understanding the pharmacokinetic journey of Fc-fusion protein, rhIL-7-hyFc using complementary approach of two analytical methods, accelerator mass spectrometry and ELISA

Antibody-based therapeutics (ABTs), including monoclonal/polyclonal antibodies and fragment crystallizable region (Fc)-fusion proteins, are increasingly used in disease treatment, driving the global market growth. Understanding the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of ABTs is crucial for their clinical effectiveness. This study investigated the PK profile and tissue distribution of efineptakin alfa, a long-acting recombinant human interleukin-7 (rhIL-7-hyFc), using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Totally, four rats were injected intramuscularly with 1 mg/kg of rhIL-7-hyFc containing 14C-rhIL-7-hyFc, which was prepared via reductive methylation. Serum total radioactivity (TRA) and serum rhIL-7-hyFc concentrations were quantified using AMS and ELISA, respectively. The TRA concentrations in organs were determined by AMS. Serum TRA peaked at 10 hours with a terminal half-life of 40 hours. The rhIL-7-hyFc exhibited a mean peak concentration at around 17 hours and a rapid elimination with a half-life of 12.3 hours. Peak concentration and area under the curve of TRA were higher than those of rhIL-7-hyFc. Tissue distribution analysis showed an elevated TRA concentrations in lymph nodes, kidneys, and spleen, indicating rhIL-7-hyFc's affinity for these organs. The study also simulated the positions of 14C labeling in rhIL-7-hyFc, identifying specific residues in the fragment of rhIL-7 portion, and provided the explanation of distinct analytes targeted by each method. Combining ELISA and AMS provided advantages by offering sensitivity and specificity for quantification as well as enabling the identification of analyte forms. The integrated use of ELISA and AMS offers valuable insights for the development and optimization of ABT.

Computer-aided drug discovery of c-Abl kinase inhibitors from plant compounds against chronic myeloid leukemia

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a hematological malignancy characterized by the neoplastic transformation of hematopoietic stem cells, driven by the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome resulting from a translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22. This Ph chromosome harbors the breakpoint cluster region (BCR) and the Abelson (ABL) oncogene (BCR-ABL1) which have a constitutive tyrosine kinase activity. However, the tyrosine kinase activity of BCR-ABL1 have been identified as a key player in CML initiation and maintenance through c-Abl kinase. Despite advancements in tyrosine kinase inhibitors, challenges such as efficacy, safety concerns, and recurring drug resistance persist. This study aims to discover potential c-Abl kinase inhibitors from plant compounds with anti-leukemic properties, employing drug-likeness assessment, molecular docking, in silico pharmacokinetics (ADMET) screening, density function theory (DFT), and molecular dynamics simulations (MDS). Out of 58 screened compounds for drug-likeness, 44 were docked against c-Abl kinase. The top hit compound (isovitexin) and nilotinib (control drug) were subjected to rigorous analyses, including ADMET profiling, DFT evaluation, and MDS for 100 ns. Isovitexin demonstrated a notable binding affinity (-15.492 kcal/mol), closely comparable to nilotinib (-16.826 kcal/mol), showcasing a similar binding pose and superior structural stability and reactivity. While these findings suggest isovitexin as a potential c-Abl kinase inhibitor, further validation through urgent in vitro and in vivo experiments is imperative. This research holds promise for providing an alternative avenue to address existing CML treatment and management challenges.

Challenging the Norm: A Multidisciplinary Perspective on Intravenous to Subcutaneous Bridging Strategies for Biologics

The transition from intravenous (i.v.) to subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of biologics is a critical strategy in drug development aimed at improving patient convenience, compliance, and therapeutic outcomes. Focusing on the increasing role of model-informed drug development (MIDD) in the acceleration of this transition, an in-depth overview of the essential clinical pharmacology, and regulatory considerations for successful i.v. to s.c. bridging for biologics after the i.v. formulation has been approved are presented. Considerations encompass multiple aspects beginning with adequate pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (i.e., exposure-response) evaluations which play a vital role in establishing comparability between the i.v. and s.c. routes of administrations. Selected key recommendations and points to consider include: (i) PK characterization of the s.c. formulation, supported by the increasing preclinical understanding of the s.c. absorption, and robust PK study design and analyses in humans; (ii) a thorough characterization of the exposure-response profiles including important metrics of exposure for both efficacy and safety; (iii) comparability studies designed to meet regulatory considerations and support approval of the s.c. formulation, including noninferiority studies with PK and/or efficacy and safety as primary end points; and (iv) comprehensive safety package addressing assessments of immunogenicity and patients' safety profile with the new route of administration. Recommendations for successful bridging strategies are evolving and MIDD approaches have been used successfully to accelerate the transition to s.c. dosing, ultimately leading to improved patient experiences, adherence, and clinical outcomes.

Synthesis, in silico screening, and biological evaluation of novel pyridine congeners as anti-epileptic agents targeting AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole) receptors

The research involves the synthesis of a series of new pyridine analogs 5(i-x) and their evaluation for anti-epileptic potential using in silico and in vivo models. Synthesis of the compounds was accomplished by using the Vilsmeier-Haack reaction principle. AutoDock 4.2 was used for their in silico screening against AMPA (-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole) receptor (PDB ID:3m3f). For in vivo testing, the maximal electroshock seizure (MES) model was used. The physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, drug-like, and drug-score features of all synthesized compounds were assessed using the online Swiss ADME and Protein Plus software. The in silico results showed that all the synthesized compounds 5(i-x) had 1-3 interactions and affinities ranging from -6.5 to -8.0 kJ/mol with the targeted receptor compared to the binding affinities of the standard drug phenytoin and the original ligand of the target (P99), which were -7.6 and -6.8 kJ/mol, respectively. In vivo study results showed that the compound 5-Carbamoyl-2-formyl-1-[2-(4-nitrophenyl)-2-oxo-ethyl]-pyridinium gave 60% protection against epileptic seizures compared to 59% protection afforded by regular phenytoin. All of them met Lipinski's rule of five and had drug-likeness and drug score values of 0.55 and 0.8, respectively, making them chemically and functionally like phenytoin. According to the findings of the studies, the synthesized derivatives have the potential to be employed as a stepping stone in the development of novel anti-epileptic drugs.

Precision Deuteration in Search of Anticancer Agents: Approaches to Cancer Drug Discovery

Cancer chemotherapy has been shifted from conventional cytotoxic drug therapy to selective and target-specific therapy after the findings about DNA changes and proteins that are responsible for cancer. A large number of newer drugs were discovered as targeted therapy for particular types of neoplastic disease. The initial discovery includes the development of the first in the category, imatinib, a Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) for the treatment of chronic myelocytic leukemia in 2001. But the joy did not last for long as the drug developed a point mutation within the ABL1 kinase domain of BCR-ABL1, which subsequently led to the discovery of many other TKIs. Resistance was observed for newer TKIs a few years after their launching, but the use of TKIs in life-threatening cancer therapy is considered as far better compared with the risks of disease because of its target specificity and hence less toxicity. In search of a better anticancer agent, the physiochemical properties of the lead molecule have been modified for its efficacy toward disease and delay in the development of resistance. Deuteration in the drug molecule is one of such modifications that alter the pharmacokinetic properties, generally its metabolism, as compared with its pharmacodynamic effects. Precision deuteration in many anticancer drugs has been carried out to search for better drugs for cancer. In this review, the majority of anticancer drugs and molecules for which deuteration was applied to get better anticancer molecules were discussed. This review will provide a complete guide about the benefits of deuteration in cancer chemotherapy.

Automation of Drug Discovery through Cutting-edge In-silico Research in Pharmaceuticals: Challenges and Future Scope

The rapidity and high-throughput nature of in silico technologies make them advantageous for predicting the properties of a large array of substances. In silico approaches can be used for compounds intended for synthesis at the beginning of drug development when there is either no or very little compound available. In silico approaches can be used for impurities or degradation products. Quantifying drugs and related substances (RS) with pharmaceutical drug analysis (PDA) can also improve drug discovery (DD) by providing additional avenues to pursue. Potential future applications of PDA include combining it with other methods to make insilico predictions about drugs and RS. One possible outcome of this is a determination of the drug potential of nontoxic RS. ADME estimation, QSAR research, molecular docking, bioactivity prediction, and toxicity testing all involve impurity profiling. Before committing to DD, RS with minimal toxicity can be utilised in silico. The efficacy of molecular docking in getting a medication to market is still debated despite its refinement and improvement. Biomedical labs and pharmaceutical companies were hesitant to adopt molecular docking algorithms for drug screening despite their decades of development and improvement. Despite the widespread use of "force fields" to represent the energy exerted within and between molecules, it has been impossible to reliably predict or compute the binding affinities between proteins and potential binding medications.

Predicting the clinical subcutaneous absorption rate constant of monoclonal antibodies using only the primary sequence: a machine learning approach

Subcutaneous injections are an increasingly prevalent route of administration for delivering biological therapies including monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Compared with intravenous delivery, subcutaneous injections reduce administration costs, shorten the administration time, and are strongly preferred from a patient experience point of view. An understanding of the absorption process of a mAb from the injection site to the systemic circulation is critical to the process of subcutaneous mAb formulation development. In this study, we built a model to predict the absorption rate constant (ka), which denotes how fast a mAb is absorbed from the site of administration. Once trained, our model (enabled by the XGBoost algorithm in machine learning) can predict the ka of a mAb following a subcutaneous injection using in silico molecular properties alone (generated from the primary sequence). Our model does not need clinically observed plasma concentration-time data; this is a novel capability not previously achieved in predictive pharmacokinetic models. The model also showed improved performance when benchmarked against a recently reported mechanistic model that relied on clinical data to predict subcutaneous absorption of mAbs. We further interpreted the model to understand which molecular properties affect the absorption rate and showed that our findings are consistent with previous studies evaluating subcutaneous absorption through direct experimentation. Taken altogether, this study reports the development, validation, benchmarking, and interpretation of a model that can predict the clinical ka of a mAb using its primary sequence as the only input.

Stabilization challenges and aggregation in protein-based therapeutics in the pharmaceutical industry

Protein-based therapeutics have revolutionized the pharmaceutical industry and become vital components in the development of future therapeutics. They offer several advantages over traditional small molecule drugs, including high affinity, potency and specificity, while demonstrating low toxicity and minimal adverse effects. However, the development and manufacturing processes of protein-based therapeutics presents challenges related to protein folding, purification, stability and immunogenicity that should be addressed. These proteins, like other biological molecules, are prone to chemical and physical instabilities. The stability of protein-based drugs throughout the entire manufacturing, storage and delivery process is essential. The occurrence of structural instability resulting from misfolding, unfolding, and modifications, as well as aggregation, poses a significant risk to the efficacy of these drugs, overshadowing their promising attributes. Gaining insight into structural alterations caused by aggregation and their impact on immunogenicity is vital for the advancement and refinement of protein therapeutics. Hence, in this review, we have discussed some features of protein aggregation during production, formulation and storage as well as stabilization strategies in protein engineering and computational methods to prevent aggregation.

Molecular Hybridization of Alkaloids Using 1,2,3-Triazole-Based Click Chemistry

Alkaloids found in multiple species, known as 'driver species', are more likely to be included in early-stage drug development due to their high biodiversity compared to rare alkaloids. Many synthetic approaches have been employed to hybridize the natural alkaloids in drug development. Click chemistry is a highly efficient and versatile reaction targeting specific areas, making it a valuable tool for creating complex natural products and diverse molecular structures. It has been used to create hybrid alkaloids that address their limitations and serve as potential drugs that mimic natural products. In this review, we highlight the recent advancements made in modifying alkaloids using click chemistry and their potential medicinal applications. We discuss the significance, current trends, and prospects of click chemistry in natural product-based medicine. Furthermore, we have employed computational methods to evaluate the ADMET properties and drug-like qualities of hybrid molecules.

Molecular Interaction of Functionalized Nanoplastics with Human Hemoglobin

Humans are exposed to excessive nanoplastics (NPs) which have ample affinity for globular proteins. We investigated the interaction of functionalized polystyrene nanoplastics (plain: PS, carboxy: PS-COOH, and amine: PS-NH2) with human hemoglobin (Hb) utilizing multi-spectroscopic and docking approaches to acquire insights into molecular aspects of binding mechanism, which will be helpful in assessing the toxicokinetics or toxicodynamics of nanoplastics NPs. Hypsochromicity and hypochromicity were observed invariably in all the spectra (steady-state fluorescence emission, synchronous and three-dimensional) for all complexes, among which PS-NH2 binds effectively and changes the Hb's conformation by enhancing hydrophobicity around aromatic residues, notably tryptophan. All the NPs bind with the hydrophobic pocket of B-chain in Hb, where PS and PS-NH2 bind via hydrophobic force while PS-COOH binds via hydrogen bonding (predominantly) and van der Waals force, consistent validated with docking results. The minimal shift in absorbance peak also indicates enhanced hydrophobicity by PS-NH2 with larger aggregation as demonstrated in resonance light scattering. The amide band's shift, secondary structural analysis, and presence of characteristic functional group peaks in complexes in Infra-Red spectra confirm the structural changes in the protein. As seen in field emission scanning microscopy images, NPs penetrate the surface of proteins. These findings conclude that polystyrene NPs interact with Hb, causing structural alterations that may affect functional characteristics as well, with the greatest effect being in the order: PS-NH2>PS-COOH>PS.

Anxiolytic-like Effects by trans-Ferulic Acid Possibly Occur through GABAergic Interaction Pathways

Numerous previous studies reported that ferulic acid exerts anxiolytic activity. However, the mechanisms have yet to be elucidated. The current study aimed to investigate the anxiolytic effect of trans-ferulic acid (TFA), a stereoisomer of ferulic acid, and evaluated its underlying mechanism using in vivo and computational studies. For this, different experimental doses of TFA (25, 50, and 75 mg/kg) were administered orally to Swiss albino mice, and various behavioral methods of open field, hole board, swing box, and light-dark tests were carried out. Diazepam (DZP), a positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor, was employed as a positive control at a dose of 2 mg/kg, and distilled water served as a vehicle. Additionally, molecular docking was performed to estimate the binding affinities of the TFA and DZP toward the GABAA receptor subunits of α2 and α3, which are associated with the anxiolytic effect; visualizations of the ligand-receptor interaction were carried out using various computational tools. Our findings indicate that TFA dose-dependently reduces the locomotor activity of the animals in comparison with the controls, calming their behaviors. In addition, TFA exerted the highest binding affinity (-5.8 kcal/mol) to the α2 subunit of the GABAA receptor by forming several hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds. Taken together, our findings suggest that TFA exerts a similar effect to DZP, and the compound exerts moderate anxiolytic activity through the GABAergic interaction pathway. We suggest further clinical studies to develop TFA as a reliable anxiolytic agent.

Efficacy and safety of anti-TNF multivalent NANOBODY® compound 'ozoralizumab' without methotrexate co-administration in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: A 52-week result of phase III, randomised, open-label trial (NATSUZORA trial)

OBJECTIVES

The aim is to assess the efficacy and safety of a 52-week subcutaneous ozoralizumab treatment at 30 and 80 mg without methotrexate (MTX) in active rheumatoid arthritis.

METHODS

This randomised, open-label, multicentre phase III trial randomly allocated 140 patients in 2:1 ratio as subcutaneous ozoralizumab at 30 or 80 mg every 4 weeks for 52 weeks without MTX.

RESULTS

Both groups administered ozoralizumab at 30 and 80 mg showed good clinical improvement. The American College of Rheumatology response rates were high at Week 24 and maintained through 52 weeks. The ozoralizumab groups also showed good improvement in other end points, and improvements observed from Week 1 were maintained through 52 weeks. Improvements in many efficacy assessments were similar between doses. No deaths were reported, and serious adverse events occurred in a total of 20 patients in the ozoralizumab groups. Increased antidrug antibodies were observed in approximately 40% of patients in the ozoralizumab groups, and 27.7% of the patients in the 30 mg group were neutralising antibody-positive.

CONCLUSIONS

Ozoralizumab, at 30 and 80 mg, demonstrated significant therapeutic effects without MTX, and the efficacy was maintained for 52 weeks with active rheumatoid arthritis. Ozoralizumab showed an acceptable tolerability profile over 52 weeks.

Efficacy and safety of the anti-TNF multivalent NANOBODY® compound ozoralizumab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and an inadequate response to methotrexate: A 52-week result of a Phase II/III study (OHZORA trial)

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy and safety through a 52-week treatment with subcutaneous ozoralizumab at 30 or 80 mg in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis despite methotrexate therapy.

METHODS

This multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel-group confirmatory trial included a 24-week double-blind treatment period followed by a 28-week open-label treatment period. The double-blind treatment period randomized 381 (2:2:1) patients to placebo and ozoralizumab at 30 or 80 mg, and patients receiving placebo were re-randomized (1:1) to ozoralizumab at 30 or 80 mg in the open-label period.

RESULTS

The ozoralizumab groups showed good clinical improvement, with high American College of Rheumatology response rates at 52 weeks, as well as good improvements in other endpoints, which were observed from Day 3 and maintained through Week 52. Furthermore, the ozoralizumab groups showed a high remission rate in clinical and functional remission at Week 52. Serious adverse events occurred in a total of 23 patients in the ozoralizumab groups, without differences in incidence between doses.

CONCLUSIONS

Ozoralizumab demonstrated significant therapeutic effects and efficacy, which was maintained for 52 weeks. The safety profile was consistent with the evaluated results in interim analysis at Week 24, and ozoralizumab was well-tolerated up to Week 52.

Mechanism-based pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modeling for bispecific antibodies: challenges and opportunities

INTRODUCTION

Unlike conventional antibodies, bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) are engineered antibody- or antibody fragment-based molecules that can simultaneously recognize two different epitopes or antigens. Over the past decade, there has been an explosion of bsAbs being developed across therapeutic areas. Development of bsAbs presents unique challenges and mechanism-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modeling has served as a powerful tool to optimize their development and realize their clinical utility.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the guiding principles and case examples of how fit-for-purpose, mechanism-based PK/PD models have been applied to answer questions commonly encountered in bsAb development are presented. Such models characterize the key pharmacological elements of bsAbs, and they can be utilized for model-informed drug development. We also include the discussion of challenges, knowledge gaps and future direction for such models.

EXPERT OPINION

Mechanistic PK/PD modeling is a powerful tool to support the development of bsAbs. These models can be extrapolated to predict treatment outcomes based on mechanisms of action (MoA) and clinical observations to form positive learn-and-confirm cycles during drug development, due to their abilities to differentiate system- and drug-specific parameters. Meanwhile, the models should keep being adapted according to novel drug design and MoA, providing continuous opportunities for model-informed drug development.

Challenges and opportunities in delivering oral peptides and proteins

INTRODUCTION

Rapid advances in bioengineering enable the use of complex proteins as therapeutic agents to treat diseases. Compared with conventional small molecule drugs, proteins have multiple advantages, including high bioactivity and specificity with low toxicity. Developing oral dosage forms with active proteins is a route to improve patient compliance and significantly reduce production costs. However, the gastrointestinal environment remains a challenge to this delivery path due to enzymatic degradation, low permeability, and weak absorption, leading to reduced delivery efficiency and poor clinical outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the barriers to oral delivery of peptides and complex proteins, current oral delivery strategies utilized and the opportunities and challenges ahead to try and circumvent these barriers. Oral protein drugs on the market and clinical trials provide insights and approaches for advancing delivery strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

Although most current studies on oral protein delivery rely on in vitro and in vivo animal data, the safety and limitations of the approach in humans remain uncertain. The shortage of clinical data limits the development of new or alternative strategies. Therefore, designing appropriate oral delivery strategies remains a significant challenge and requires new ideas, innovative design strategies and novel model systems.

Intravital Microscopy Reveals Unforeseen Biodistribution Within the Liver and Kidney Mechanistically Connected to the Clearance of a Bifunctional Antibody

Bifunctional antibody (BfAb) therapeutics offer the potential for novel functionalities beyond those of the individual monospecific entities. However, combining these entities into a single molecule can have unpredictable effects, including changes in pharmacokinetics that limit the compound's therapeutic profile. A better understanding of how molecular modifications affect in vivo tissue interactions could help inform BfAb design. The present studies were predicated on the observation that a BfAb designed to have minimal off-target interactions cleared from the circulation twice as fast as the monoclonal antibody (mAb) from which it was derived. The present study leverages the spatial and temporal resolution of intravital microscopy (IVM) to identify cellular interactions that may explain the different pharmacokinetics of the two compounds. Disposition studies of mice demonstrated that radiolabeled compounds distributed similarly over the first 24 hours, except that BfAb accumulated approximately two- to -three times more than mAb in the liver. IVM studies of mice demonstrated that both distributed to endosomes of liver endothelia but with different kinetics. Whereas mAb accumulated rapidly within the first hour of administration, BfAb accumulated only modestly during the first hour but continued to accumulate over 24 hours, ultimately reaching levels similar to those of the mAb. Although neither compound was freely filtered by the mouse or rat kidney, BfAb, but not mAb, was found to accumulate over 24 hours in endosomes of proximal tubule cells. These studies demonstrate how IVM can be used as a tool in drug design, revealing unpredicted cellular interactions that are undetectable by conventional analyses. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Bifunctional antibodies offer novel therapeutic functionalities beyond those of the individual monospecific entities. However, combining these entities into a single molecule can have unpredictable effects, including undesirable changes in pharmacokinetics. Studies of the dynamic distribution of a bifunctional antibody and its parent monoclonal antibody presented here demonstrate how intravital microscopy can expand our understanding of the in vivo disposition of therapeutics, detecting off-target interactions that could not be detected by conventional pharmacokinetics approaches or predicted by conventional physicochemical analyses.

In silico and in vitro studies of GENT-EDTA encapsulated niosomes: A novel approach to enhance the antibacterial activity and biofilm inhibition in drug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae

Klebsiella pneumoniae (Kp) is a common pathogen inducing catheter-related biofilm infections. Developing effective therapy to overcome antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Kp is a severe therapeutic challenge that must be solved. This study aimed to prepare niosome-encapsulated GENT (Gentamicin) and EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) (GENT-EDTA/Nio) to evaluate its efficacy toward Kp strains. The thin-film hydration method was used to prepare various formulations of GENT-EDTA/Nio. Formulations were characterized for their physicochemical characteristics. GENT-EDTA/Nio properties were used for optimization with Design-Expert Software. Molecular docking was utilized to determine the antibacterial activity of GENT. The niosomes displayed a controlled drug release and storage stability of at least 60 days at 4 and 25 °C. GENT-EDTA/Nio performance as antimicrobial agents has been evaluated by employing agar well diffusion method, minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against the Kp bacteria strains. Biofilm formation was investigated after GENT-EDTA/Nio administration through different detection methods, which showed that this formulation reduces biofilm formation. The effect of GENT-EDTA/Nio on the expression of biofilm-related genes (mrkA, ompA, and vzm) was estimated using QRT-PCR. MTT assay was used to evaluate the toxicity effect of niosomal formulations on HFF cells. The present study results indicate that GENT-EDTA/Nio decreases Kp's resistance to antibiotics and increases its antibiotic and anti-biofilm activity and could be helpful as a new approach for drug delivery.

Investigation of macromolecular transport through tunable collagen hyaluronic acid matrices

Therapeutic macromolecules possess properties such as size and electrostatic charge that will dictate their transport through subcutaneous (SC) tissue and ultimate bioavailability and efficacy. To improve therapeutic design, platforms that systematically measure the transport of macromolecules as a function of both drug and tissue properties are needed. We utilize a Transwell chamber with tunable collagen-hyaluronic acid (ColHA) hydrogels as an in vitro model to determine mass transport of macromolecules using non-invasive UV spectroscopy. Increasing hyaluronic acid (HA) concentration from 0 to 2 mg/mL within collagen gels decreases the mass transport of five macromolecules independent of size and charge and results in a maximum decrease in recovery of 23.3% in the case of bovine immunoglobulin G (IgG). However, in a pure 10 mg/mL HA solution, negatively-charged macromolecules bovine serum albumin (BSA), β-lactoglobulin (BLg), dextran (Dex), and IgG had drastically increased recovery by 20-40% compared to their performance in ColHA matrices. This result was different from the positively-charged macromolecule Lysozyme (Lys), which, despite its small size, showed reduced recovery by 3% in pure HA. These results demonstrate two distinct regimes of mass transport within our tissue model. In the presence of both collagen and HA, increasing HA concentrations decrease mass transport; however, in the absence of collagen, the high negative charge of HA sequesters and increases residence time of positively-charged macromolecules and decreases residence time of negatively-charged macromolecules. Through our approach, ColHA hydrogels serve as a platform for the systematic evaluation of therapeutic macromolecule transport as a function of molecular characteristics.

Estrogen receptor targeting with genistein radiolabeled Technetium-99m as radiotracer of breast cancer: Its optimization, characterization, and predicting stability constants by DFT calculation

Objective

Genistein is an isoflavone molecule with a high affinity for estrogen receptors (ER), which could lead to the mechanism of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) in breast cancer. Genistein labeling with technetium-99^m can be a new promising strategy for diagnostic breast cancer. In this research, we evaluate the physicochemical characteristics of the [^99mTc]Tc-genistein complex and describe the optimal labeling method parameters. We also calculated density functional theory to study the stability constants to support complex formation analysis (DFT).

Methods

The genistein was directly labeled with ^99mTc, and its stability as well as its potential for usage as a radiotracer were all investigated. DFT calculations with thermodynamic cycles to determine chemical coordination models and calculate thermodynamic constants of complex more accurately.

Results

The radiochemical purity of [^99mTc]Tc-genistein showed a high yield of 93.25% ± 0.30% and had good physicochemical properties. The stability of the Tc(IV)-genistein complex was confirmed by DFT calculations at a value of 99.0822.

Conclusions

As a result, [^99mTc]Tc-genistein could be a potential radiotracer kit for SPECT imaging of breast cancer.

Phase II/III Results of a Trial of Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor Multivalent NANOBODY Compound Ozoralizumab in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy and safety of subcutaneous administration of 30 mg or 80 mg of ozoralizumab plus methotrexate (MTX) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) whose disease remained active despite MTX therapy.

METHODS

In this multicenter, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled phase II/III trial, 381 patients were randomized to receive placebo, ozoralizumab 30 mg, or ozoralizumab 80 mg, plus MTX subcutaneously injected every 4 weeks for 24 weeks. The primary end points were the response rates based on the American College of Rheumatology 20% improvement criteria (ACR20) at week 16 and change in the Sharp/van der Heijde score (ΔSHS) from baseline to week 24.

RESULTS

The proportion of patients with an ACR20 response at week 16 was significantly higher (P < 0.001) in both ozoralizumab groups (79.6% for 30 mg, 75.3% for 80 mg), compared with placebo (37.3%); these improvements were observed from the first week of treatment. The proportion of the patients with structural nonprogression (ΔSHS ≤0) was significantly higher in both ozoralizumab groups than in the placebo group. For some secondary end points, significantly greater improvements were observed starting from as early as day 3. Serious adverse events occurred in 4 patients in the ozoralizumab 30-mg group and 5 patients in the ozoralizumab 80-mg group.

CONCLUSION

In patients with active RA who received ozoralizumab in combination with MTX, the signs and symptoms of RA were significantly reduced as compared with the outcomes in those receiving placebo. Ozoralizumab demonstrated acceptable tolerability with no new safety signals when compared with other antibodies against tumor necrosis factor.

A novel anti-TNF-α drug ozoralizumab rapidly distributes to inflamed joint tissues in a mouse model of collagen induced arthritis

In clinical studies, the next-generation anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) single domain antibody ozoralizumab showed high clinical efficacy shortly after the subcutaneous injection. To elucidate the mechanism underlying the rapid onset of the effects of ozoralizumab, we compared the biodistribution kinetics of ozoralizumab and adalimumab after subcutaneous injection in an animal model of arthritis. Alexa Fluor 680-labeled ozoralizumab and adalimumab were administered by subcutaneous injection once (2 mg/kg) at five weeks after induction of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in an animal arthritis model. The time-course of changes in the fluorescence intensities of the two compounds in the paws and serum were evaluated. The paws of the CIA mice were harvested at four and eight hours after the injection for fluorescence microscopy. Biofluorescence imaging revealed better distribution of ozoralizumab to the joint tissues than of adalimumab, as early as at four hours after the injection. Fluorescence microscopy revealed a greater fluorescence intensity of ozoralizumab in the joint tissues than that of adalimumab at eight hours after the injection. Ozoralizumab showed a significantly higher absorption rate constant as compared with adalimumab. These results indicate that ozoralizumab enters the systemic circulation more rapidly and is distributed to the target tissues earlier and at higher levels than conventional IgG antibodies. Our investigation provides new insight into the mechanism underlying the rapid onset of the effects of ozoralizumab in clinical practice.

Discovery of Novel HIV Protease Inhibitors Using Modern Computational Techniques

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) has continued to be a global concern. With the new HIV incidence, the emergence of multi-drug resistance and the untoward side effects of currently used anti-HIV drugs, there is an urgent need to discover more efficient anti-HIV drugs. Modern computational tools have played vital roles in facilitating the drug discovery process. This research focuses on a pharmacophore-based similarity search to screen 111,566,735 unique compounds in the PubChem database to discover novel HIV-1 protease inhibitors (PIs). We used an in silico approach involving a 3D-similarity search, physicochemical and ADMET evaluations, HIV protease-inhibitor prediction (IC50/percent inhibition), rigid receptor-molecular docking studies, binding free energy calculations and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The 10 FDA-approved HIV PIs (saquinavir, lopinavir, ritonavir, amprenavir, fosamprenavir, atazanavir, nelfinavir, darunavir, tipranavir and indinavir) were used as reference. The in silico analysis revealed that fourteen out of the twenty-eight selected optimized hit molecules were within the acceptable range of all the parameters investigated. The hit molecules demonstrated significant binding affinity to the HIV protease (PR) when compared to the reference drugs. The important amino acid residues involved in hydrogen bonding and п-п stacked interactions include ASP25, GLY27, ASP29, ASP30 and ILE50. These interactions help to stabilize the optimized hit molecules in the active binding site of the HIV-1 PR (PDB ID: 2Q5K). HPS/002 and HPS/004 have been found to be most promising in terms of IC50/percent inhibition (90.15%) of HIV-1 PR, in addition to their drug metabolism and safety profile. These hit candidates should be investigated further as possible HIV-1 PIs with improved efficacy and low toxicity through in vitro experiments and clinical trial investigations.

Identification of potential inhibitory analogs of metastasis tumor antigens (MTAs) using bioactive compounds: revealing therapeutic option to prevent malignancy

The deeper understanding of metastasis phenomenon and detection of drug targets could be a potential approach to minimize cancer mortality. In this study, attempts were taken to unmask novel therapeutics to prevent metastasis and cancer progression. Initially, we explored the physiochemical, structural and functional insights of three metastasis tumor antigens (MTAs) and evaluated some plant-based bioactive compounds as potent MTA inhibitors. From 50 plant metabolites screened, isoflavone, gingerol, citronellal and asiatic acid showed maximum binding affinity with all three MTA proteins. The ADME analysis detected no undesirable toxicity that could reduce the drug likeness properties of top plant metabolites. Moreover, molecular dynamics studies revealed that the complexes were stable and showed minimum fluctuation at molecular level. We further performed ligand-based virtual screening to identify similar drug molecules using a large collection of 376,342 compounds from DrugBank. The results suggested that several structural analogs (e.g., tramadol, nabumetone, DGLA and hydrocortisone) may act as agonist to block the MTA proteins and inhibit cancer progression at early stage. The study could be useful to develop effective medications against cancer metastasis in future. Due to encouraging results, we highly recommend further in vitro and in vivo trials for the experimental validation of the findings.

Subcutaneous Catabolism of Peptide Therapeutics: Bioanalytical Approaches and ADME Considerations

Many peptide drugs such as insulin and glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) analogues are successfully administered subcutaneously (SC). Following SC injection, peptides may undergo catabolism in the SC compartment before entering systemic circulation, which could compromise their bioavailability and in turn affect their efficacy.This review will discuss how both technology and strategy have evolved over the past years to further elucidate peptide SC catabolism.Modern bioanalytical technologies (particularly liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry) and bioinformatics platforms for data mining has prompted the development of in silico, in vitro and in vivo tools for characterizing peptide SC catabolism to rapidly address proteolytic liabilities and, ultimately, guide the design of peptides with improved SC bioavailability.More predictive models able to recapitulate the interplay between SC catabolism and other factors driving SC absorption are highly desirable to improve in vitro/in vivo correlations.We envision the routine incorporation of in vitro and in vivo SC catabolism studies in ADME screening funnels to develop more effective peptide drugs for SC delivery.

New Advances in Biomedical Application of Polymeric Micelles

In the last decade, nanomedicine has arisen as an emergent area of medicine, which studies nanometric systems, namely polymeric micelles (PMs), that increase the solubility and the stability of the encapsulated drugs. Furthermore, their application in dermal drug delivery is also relevant. PMs present unique characteristics because of their unique core-shell architecture. They are colloidal dispersions of amphiphilic compounds, which self-assemble in an aqueous medium, giving a structure-type core-shell, with a hydrophobic core (that can encapsulate hydrophobic drugs), and a hydrophilic shell, which works as a stabilizing agent. These features offer PMs adequate steric protection and determine their hydrophilicity, charge, length, and surface density properties. Furthermore, due to their small size, PMs can be absorbed by the intestinal mucosa with the drug, and they transport the drug in the bloodstream until the therapeutic target. Moreover, PMs improve the pharmacokinetic profile of the encapsulated drug, present high load capacity, and are synthesized by a reproducible, easy, and low-cost method. In silico approaches have been explored to improve the physicochemical properties of PMs. Based on this, a computer-aided strategy was developed and validated to enable the delivery of poorly soluble drugs and established critical physicochemical parameters to maximize drug loading, formulation stability, and tumor exposure. Poly(2-oxazoline) (POx)-based PMs display unprecedented high loading concerning water-insoluble drugs and over 60 drugs have been incorporated in POx PMs. Among various stimuli, pH and temperature are the most widely studied for enhanced drug release at the site of action. Researchers are focusing on dual (pH and temperature) responsive PMs for controlled and improved drug release at the site of action. These dual responsive systems are mainly evaluated for cancer therapy as certain malignancies can cause a slight increase in temperature and a decrease in the extracellular pH around the tumor site. This review is a compilation of updated therapeutic applications of PMs, such as PMs that are based on Pluronics^®, micelleplexes and Pox-based PMs in several biomedical applications.

Characterizing the Pharmacokinetics and Biodistribution of Therapeutic Proteins: An Industry White Paper

Characterization of the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of therapeutic proteins (TPs) is a hot topic within the pharmaceutical industry, particularly with an ever-increasing catalog of novel modality TPs. Here, we review the current practices, and provide a summary of extensive cross-company discussions as well as a survey completed by International Consortium for Innovation and Quality members on this theme. A wide variety of in vitro, in vivo and in silico techniques are currently used to assess pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of TPs, and we discuss the relevance of these from an industry perspective, focusing on pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic understanding at the preclinical stage of development, and translation to human. We consider that the 'traditional in vivo biodistribution study' is becoming insufficient as a standalone tool, and thorough characterization of the interaction of the TP with its target(s), target biology, and off-target interactions at a microscopic scale are key to understand the overall biodistribution on a full-body scale. Our summary of the current challenges and our recommendations to address these issues could provide insight into the implementation of best practices in this area of drug development, and continued cross-company collaboration will be of tremendous value. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The Innovation and Quality Consortium Translational and ADME Sciences Leadership Group working group for the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of therapeutic proteins evaluates the current practices and challenges in characterizing the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of therapeutic proteins during drug development, and proposes recommendations to address these issues. Incorporating the in vitro, in vivo and in silico approaches discussed herein may provide a pragmatic framework to increase early understanding of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships, and aid translational modeling for first-in-human dose predictions.

Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of Therapeutic Proteins: Current Industry Practices and Future Perspectives

Therapeutic proteins (TPs) comprise a variety of modalities, including antibody-based drugs, coagulation factors, recombinant cytokines, enzymes, growth factors, and hormones. TPs usually cannot traverse cellular barriers and exert their pharmacological activity by interacting with targets on the exterior membrane of cells or with soluble ligands in the tissue interstitial fluid/blood. Due to their large size, lack of cellular permeability, variation in metabolic fate, and distinct physicochemical characteristics, TPs are subject to different absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) processes as compared with small molecules. Limited regulatory guidance makes it challenging to determine the most relevant ADME data required for regulatory submissions. The TP ADME working group was sponsored by the Translational and ADME Sciences Leadership Group within the Innovation and Quality (IQ) consortium with objectives to: (1) better understand the current practices of ADME data generated for TPs across IQ member companies, (2) learn about their regulatory strategies and interaction experiences, and (3) provide recommendations on best practices for conducting ADME studies for TPs. To understand current ADME practices and regulatory strategies, an industry-wide survey was conducted within IQ member companies. In addition, ADME data submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration was also collated by reviewing regulatory submission packages of TPs approved between 2011 and 2020. This article summarizes the key learnings from the survey and an overview of ADME data presented in biologics license applications along with future perspectives and recommendations for conducting ADME studies for internal decision-making as well as regulatory submissions for TPs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This article provides comprehensive assessment of the current practices of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) data generated for therapeutic proteins (TPs) across the Innovation and Quality participating companies and the utility of the data in discovery, development, and regulatory submissions. The TP ADME working group also recommends the best practices for condu-cting ADME studies for internal decision-making and regulatory submissions.

Recent advances in the translation of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics science for drug discovery and development

Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) is an important branch of pharmaceutical sciences. The nature of ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion) and PK (pharmacokinetics) inquiries during drug discovery and development has evolved in recent years from being largely descriptive to seeking a more quantitative and mechanistic understanding of the fate of drug candidates in biological systems. Tremendous progress has been made in the past decade, not only in the characterization of physiochemical properties of drugs that influence their ADME, target organ exposure, and toxicity, but also in the identification of design principles that can minimize drug-drug interaction (DDI) potentials and reduce the attritions. The importance of membrane transporters in drug disposition, efficacy, and safety, as well as the interplay with metabolic processes, has been increasingly recognized. Dramatic increases in investments on new modalities beyond traditional small and large molecule drugs, such as peptides, oligonucleotides, and antibody-drug conjugates, necessitated further innovations in bioanalytical and experimental tools for the characterization of their ADME properties. In this review, we highlight some of the most notable advances in the last decade, and provide future perspectives on potential major breakthroughs and innovations in the translation of DMPK science in various stages of drug discovery and development.

A Cross Company Perspective on the Assessment of Therapeutic Protein Biotransformation

Unlike with new chemical entities, the biotransformation of therapeutic proteins (TPs) has not been routinely investigated or included in regulatory filings. Nevertheless, there is an expanding pool of evidence suggesting that a more in-depth understanding of biotransformation could better aid the discovery and development of increasingly diverse modalities. For instance, such biotransformation analysis of TPs affords important information on molecular stability, which in turn may shed light on any potential impact on binding affinity, potency, pharmacokinetics, efficacy, safety, or bioanalysis. This perspective summarizes the current practices in studying biotransformation of TPs and related findings in the biopharmaceutical industry. Various TP case studies are discussed, and a fit-for-purpose approach is recommended when investigating their biotransformation. In addition, we provide a decision tree to guide the biotransformation characterization for selected modalities. By raising the awareness of this important topic, which remains relatively underexplored in the development of TPs (Bolleddula et al., 2022), we hope that current and developing practices can pave the way for establishing a consensus on the biotransformation assessment of TPs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This article provides a comprehensive perspective of the current practices for exploring the biotransformation of therapeutic proteins across the drug development industry. We, the participants of the Innovation and Quality therapeutic protein absorption distribution metabolism excretion working group, recommend and summarize appropriate approaches for conducting biotransformation studies to support internal decision making based on the data generated in discovery and development.

Strategies for Glycoengineering Therapeutic Proteins

Almost all therapeutic proteins are glycosylated, with the carbohydrate component playing a long-established, substantial role in the safety and pharmacokinetic properties of this dominant category of drugs. In the past few years and moving forward, glycosylation is increasingly being implicated in the pharmacodynamics and therapeutic efficacy of therapeutic proteins. This article provides illustrative examples of drugs that have already been improved through glycoengineering including cytokines exemplified by erythropoietin (EPO), enzymes (ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase 1, ENPP1), and IgG antibodies (e.g., afucosylated Gazyva®, Poteligeo®, Fasenra™, and Uplizna®). In the future, the deliberate modification of therapeutic protein glycosylation will become more prevalent as glycoengineering strategies, including sophisticated computer-aided tools for "building in" glycans sites, acceptance of a broad range of production systems with various glycosylation capabilities, and supplementation methods for introducing non-natural metabolites into glycosylation pathways further develop and become more accessible.