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Adimas MA, Abera BD, Adimas ZT, Woldemariam HW, Delele MA. Traditional food processing and Acrylamide formation: A review. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30258. [PMID: 38720707 PMCID: PMC11076960 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Tradition methods that are applied for the processing of food commonly use relatively high temperature and long cooking time for the preparation of foods. This relatively high temperature and long processing time of foods especially in the presence of carbohydrate is highly associated with the formation of acrylamide. Acrylamide is a process contaminant that is highly toxic to humans and remains as a global issue. The occurrence of acrylamide in traditional foods is a major public health problem. Studies that are conducted in different countries indicated that traditionally processed foods are highly linked to the formation of acrylamide. Therefore, understanding the factors influencing acrylamide formation during traditional food processing techniques is crucial for ensuring food safety and minimizing exposure to this harmful chemical compound. Several research reports indicate that proper food processing is the most effective solution to address food safety concerns by identifying foods susceptible to acrylamide formation. This review aims to provide an overview of traditional food processing techniques and their potential contribution to the formation acrylamide and highlight the importance of mitigating its formation in food products. The information obtained in this review may be of great value to future researchers, policymakers, society, and manufacturers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mekuannt Alefe Adimas
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, P. O. Box 26, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Biresaw Demelash Abera
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, P. O. Box 26, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Zemenu Tadesse Adimas
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, P. O. Box 26, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Henock Woldemichael Woldemariam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, P. O. Box-16417, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Center of Excellence for Biotechnology and Bioprocess, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, P.O. Box 16417, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Mulugeta Admasu Delele
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, P. O. Box 26, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
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Covino C, Tafuri A, Sorrentino A, Masci S, Baldoni E, Sestili F, Villalonga R, Masi P. Mitigation of acrylamide formation in wood oven baked pizza base using wholemeal and refined wheat flour with low free asparagine content: considerations on fibre intake and starch digestibility. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2024; 104:4070-4082. [PMID: 38294231 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.13289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In wheat-derived bakery products, the quantity of free asparagine (fAsn) has been identified as a key factor in acrylamide (AA) formation. Based on this assumption, four varieties of common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), Stromboli, Montecarlo, Sothys and Cosmic, selected for their different fAsn content inside the grain, were studied to evaluate their potential in the production of pizza with reduced AA levels. To this purpose, wholemeal and refined flours were obtained from each variety. RESULTS The fAsn content ranged from 0.25 to 3.30 mmol kg-1, with higher values for wholemeal flours which also showed greater amount of ash, fibre and damaged starch than refined wheat flours. All types of flours were separately used to produce wood oven baked pizza base, according to the Traditional Speciality Guaranteed EU Regulation (97/2010). AA reduction in the range 47-68% was found for all the selected wheat cultivars, compared with a commercial flour, with significantly lower values registered when refined flour was used. Moreover, refined leavened dough samples showed decreased levels of fAsn and reducing sugars due to the fermentation activity of yeasts. Furthermore, it was confirmed that pizza made with wholemeal flours exhibited lower rapidly digestible starch (RDS) and rapidly available glucose (RAG) values compared to that prepared with the refined flour. CONCLUSION This study clearly shows that a reduced asparagine content in wheat flour is a key factor in the mitigation of AA formation in pizza base. Unfortunately, at the same time, it is highlighted how it is necessary to sacrifice the beneficial effects of fibre intake, such as lowering the glycaemic index, in order to reduce AA. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clelia Covino
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Andrea Tafuri
- Institute of Agricultural Biology and Biotechnology (IBBA), National Research Council (CNR), Milan, Italy
| | - Angela Sorrentino
- Centre for Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Stefania Masci
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Elena Baldoni
- Institute of Agricultural Biology and Biotechnology (IBBA), National Research Council (CNR), Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Sestili
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | | | - Paolo Masi
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- Centre for Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Sania A, Muhammad MA, Sajed M, Azim N, Ahmad N, Aslam M, Tang XF, Rashid N. Structural and functional analyses of an L-asparaginase from Geobacillus thermopakistaniensis. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 263:130438. [PMID: 38408579 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Genome sequence of Geobacillus thermopakistaniensis contains an open reading frame annotated as a type II L-asparaginase (ASNaseGt). Critical structural analysis disclosed that ASNaseGt might be a type I L-asparaginase. In order to determine whether it is a type I or type II L-asparaginase, we have performed the structural-functional characterization of the recombinant protein as well as analyzed the localization of ASNaseGt in G. thermopakistaniensis. ASNaseGt exhibited optimal activity at 52 °C and pH 9.5. There was a > 3-fold increase in activity in the presence of β-mercaptoethanol. Apparent Vmax and Km values were 2735 U/mg and 0.35 mM, respectively. ASNaseGt displayed high thermostability with >80 % residual activity even after 6 h of incubation at 55 °C. Recombinant ASNaseGt existed in oligomeric form. Addition of β-mercaptoethanol lowered the degree of oligomerization and displayed that tetrameric form was the most active, with a specific activity of 4300 U/mg. Under physiological conditions, ASNaseGt displayed >50 % of the optimal activity. Localization studies in G. thermopakistaniensis revealed that ASNaseGt is a cytosolic protein. Structural and functional characterization, and localization in G. thermopakistaniensis displayed that ASNaseGt is not a type II but a type I L-asparaginase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayesha Sania
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Majida Atta Muhammad
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Sajed
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Naseema Azim
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Nasir Ahmad
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Mehwish Aslam
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Xiao-Feng Tang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei Province, China
| | - Naeem Rashid
- School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan.
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Emadi A, Yousefi B, Eslami M, Abdolshahi A. Reduction of acrylamide formation in bread and fried potato products using probiotic microorganisms: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-021-00997-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Barrios-Rodríguez YF, Pedreschi F, Rosowski J, Gómez JP, Figari N, Castillo O, Mariotti Celis MS. Is the dietary acrylamide exposure in Chile a public health problem? Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:1126-1135. [PMID: 33989119 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1914867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
This study estimates for the first time dietary acrylamide intake in Chile and conducts exposure risk assessments using the margin of exposure (MOE) method. A consumption frequency survey of starchy foods was carried out in the metropolitan region of Santiago, Chile on people from different socioeconomic levels aged between 12 and 65 years old. The acrylamide contents of the most frequently consumed foods were determined by an in-house validated GC-MS technique. The potatoes and bread group contributed ~77% to the dietary acrylamide exposure in Chile, with estimated daily mean exposure of 0.55 µg kgbw-1 day-1 and 0.22 µg kgbw-1 day-1, respectively. Chilean population aged between 12 and 17 years old presented the highest acrylamide intake (mean, 1.27 µg kgbw-1 day-1; 95th percentile, 3.90 µg kgbw-1 day-1). Finally, since the estimated MOEs were lower than 10,000, the dietary acrylamide exposure in the metropolitan region of Santiago, Chile is of public health concern according to the EFSA criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeison Fernando Barrios-Rodríguez
- Departmento de Ingeniería Química y Bioprocesos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro Surcolombiano de Investigación en Café "CESURCAFÉ", Universidad Surcolombiana, Neiva, Colombia
| | - Franco Pedreschi
- Departmento de Ingeniería Química y Bioprocesos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jaime Rosowski
- Department of Nutrition, Diabetes and Metabolism, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Juan Pablo Gómez
- Departmento de Ingeniería Química y Bioprocesos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nicole Figari
- Department of Nutrition, Diabetes and Metabolism, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Oscar Castillo
- Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética, Facultad de Medicina, Unversidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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Mollakhalili-Meybodi N, Khorshidian N, Nematollahi A, Arab M. Acrylamide in bread: a review on formation, health risk assessment, and determination by analytical techniques. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:15627-15645. [PMID: 33548042 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-12775-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Acrylamide is a water-soluble toxicant found in high-protein and carbohydrate-containing foods exposed to high temperature like bread as the staple foodstuff. This toxicant is mainly formed via Maillard reaction. The potential adverse effects of acrylamide especially possible carcinogenicity in human through dietary exposure necessitate its monitoring. Regarding the existence of its precursors in wheat bread formulation as well as extreme consumption of bread by most population and diversity of bread types, its acrylamide level needs to be investigated. The indicative value for acrylamide in wheat bread is set at 80 μg/kg. Consequently, its determination using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), or capillary electrophoresis can be helpful considering both the risk assessment and quality control aspects. In this respect, methods based on LC-MS/MS show good recovery and within laboratory repeatability with a limit of detection of 3-20 μg/kg and limit of quantification of 10-50 μg/kg which is suitable for the immediate requirements for food product monitoring and calculation of consumer exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Mollakhalili-Meybodi
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
- Research Center for Food Hygiene and Safety, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Nasim Khorshidian
- Food Safety Research Center (Salt), School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Amene Nematollahi
- Department of Food Safety and Hygiene, School of Health, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran.
| | - Masoumeh Arab
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran.
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Perera DN, Hewavitharana GG, Navaratne SB. Comprehensive Study on the Acrylamide Content of High Thermally Processed Foods. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6258508. [PMID: 33681355 PMCID: PMC7925045 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6258508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) formation in starch-based processed foods at elevated temperatures is a serious health issue as it is a toxic and carcinogenic substance. However, the formation of more AA entangles with modern-day fast food industries, and a considerable amount of this ingredient is being consumed by fast food eaters inadvertently throughout the world. This article reviews the factors responsible for AA formation pathways, investigation techniques of AA, toxicity, and health-related issues followed by mitigation methods that have been studied in the past few decades comprehensively. Predominantly, AA and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are produced via the Maillard reaction and can be highlighted as the major heat-induced toxins formulated in bread and bakery products. Epidemiological studies have shown that there is a strong relationship between AA accumulation in the body and the increased risk of cancers. The scientific community is still in a dearth of technology in producing AA-free starch-protein-fat-based thermally processed food products. Therefore, this paper may facilitate the food scientists to their endeavor in developing mitigation techniques pertaining to the formation of AA and HMF in baked foods in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilini N. Perera
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
| | - Geeth G. Hewavitharana
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
| | - S. B. Navaratne
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
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Malunga LN, Ames N, Khorshidi AS, Thandapilly SJ, Yan W, Dyck A, Waterer J, Malcolmson L, Cuthbert R, Sopiwnyk E, Scanlon MG. Association of asparagine concentration in wheat with cultivar, location, fertilizer, and their interaction. Food Chem 2020; 344:128630. [PMID: 33223298 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The need to produce wheat with low asparagine concentration is of great importance as a measure to mitigate acrylamide concentration in wheat-based products. The association of asparagine concentration in Canadian bread wheat with cultivar, growing location, fertilizer and their interaction were investigated. Wheat cultivars (8) were grown in 2 locations under 4 fertilizer treatments in triplicate (which consisted of two nitrogen rates (90 or 120 lbs/acre) with or without 15 lbs sulphur per acre). The asparagine concentration ranged from 168.9 to 1050 µg/g and was significantly affected by cultivar, location, and their interaction but not fertilizer treatment. Location and cultivar were responsible for 80% and 14% of the variation, respectively. Some cultivars were not affected by location and maintained their low asparagine accumulation trait. Thus, breeding strategies should aim to identify cultivars that are low asparagine accumulating and are stable across different growing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lovemore Nkhata Malunga
- Richardson Center for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6C5, Canada; Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, 209 Human Ecology Building, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Nancy Ames
- Richardson Center for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6C5, Canada; Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, 209 Human Ecology Building, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.
| | - Ali Salimi Khorshidi
- Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, 209 Human Ecology Building, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Sijo Joseph Thandapilly
- Richardson Center for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6C5, Canada; Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, 209 Human Ecology Building, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Weikai Yan
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, ON, K1A 0C6 Ottawa, Canada
| | - Adam Dyck
- Warbuton Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3C 4E2, Canada
| | | | | | - Richard Cuthbert
- Swift Current Research & Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Swift Current, SK S9H 3X2, Canada
| | - Elaine Sopiwnyk
- Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, MB R3C 3G7, Canada
| | - Martin G Scanlon
- Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, 209 Human Ecology Building, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
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Žilić S, Aktağ IG, Dodig D, Filipović M, Gökmen V. Acrylamide formation in biscuits made of different wholegrain flours depending on their free asparagine content and baking conditions. Food Res Int 2020; 132:109109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Han Z, Gao J, Wang X, Wang W, Dong J, Zhang Y, Wang S. Formation and Alterations of the Potentially Harmful Maillard Reaction Products during the Production and Storage of Brown Fermented Milk. Molecules 2019; 24:E272. [PMID: 30642064 PMCID: PMC6359423 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24020272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
To improve the quality and safety of brown fermented milk (BFM), the formation and alterations of potentially harmful Maillard reaction products (MRPs), including 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG), methylglyoxal (MGO), 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfural (HMF), acrylamide and flavour components were investigated during the browning, fermentation and commercial storage. MRPs were shown to be produced mainly during the browning stage. The levels of different substances varied during the fermentation and commercial storage stage. The proportion and type of carboxylic acids in the flavour components significantly increased during the fermentation stage. Browning index of milk during the browning stage was shown to be positively associated with the 3-DG (Pearson's r = 0.9632), MGO (Pearson's r = 0.9915), HMF (Pearson's r = 0.9772), and acrylamide (Pearson's r = 0.7910) levels and the total percentage of the flavour components from four different categories (Pearson's r = 0.7407). Changes in physicochemical properties of BFM during production not only contribute to predict the formation of potentially unhealthy MRPs, but also Lactobacillus species used for the fermentation should be carefully selected to improve the quality of this product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhonghui Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qilu University of Technology, Jinan 250353, China.
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
| | - Jianxin Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China.
| | - Xiaomin Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
| | - Wenxiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China.
| | - Jing Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China.
| | - Yan Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
| | - Shuo Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
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Kumar J, Das S, Teoh SL. Dietary Acrylamide and the Risks of Developing Cancer: Facts to Ponder. Front Nutr 2018; 5:14. [PMID: 29541638 PMCID: PMC5835509 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) is a water soluble white crystalline solid commonly used in industries. It was listed as an industrial chemical with potential carcinogenic properties. However to date, AA was used to produce polyacrylamide polymer, which was widely used as a coagulant in water treatment; additives during papermaking; grouting material for dams, tunnels, and other underground building constructions. AA in food could be formed during high-temperature cooking via several mechanisms, i.e., formation via acrylic acid which may be derived from the degradation of lipid, carbohydrates, or free amino acids; formation via the dehydration/decarboxylation of organic acids (malic acid, lactic acid, and citric acid); and direct formation from amino acids. The big debate is whether this compound is toxic to human beings or not. In the present review, we discuss the formation of AA in food products, its consumption, and possible link to the development of any cancers. We discuss the body enzymatic influence on AA and mechanism of action of AA on hormone, calcium signaling pathways, and cytoskeletal filaments. We also highlight the deleterious effects of AA on nervous system, reproductive system, immune system, and the liver. The present and future mitigation strategies are also discussed. The present review on AA may be beneficial for researchers, food industry, and also medical personnel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaya Kumar
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Srijit Das
- Department of Anatomy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Seong Lin Teoh
- Department of Anatomy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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