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Kirkham R, Kooijman L, Albertella L, Myles D, Yücel M, Rotaru K. Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Methods for Assessing Executive Functioning: Systematic Review. JMIR Serious Games 2024; 12:e50282. [PMID: 38407958 DOI: 10.2196/50282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuropsychological assessments traditionally include tests of executive functioning (EF) because of its critical role in daily activities and link to mental disorders. Established traditional EF assessments, although robust, lack ecological validity and are limited to single cognitive processes. These methods, which are suitable for clinical populations, are less informative regarding EF in healthy individuals. With these limitations in mind, immersive virtual reality (VR)-based assessments of EF have garnered interest because of their potential to increase test sensitivity, ecological validity, and neuropsychological assessment accessibility. OBJECTIVE This systematic review aims to explore the literature on immersive VR assessments of EF focusing on (1) EF components being assessed, (2) how these assessments are validated, and (3) strategies for monitoring potential adverse (cybersickness) and beneficial (immersion) effects. METHODS EBSCOhost, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched in July 2022 using keywords that reflected the main themes of VR, neuropsychological tests, and EF. Articles had to be peer-reviewed manuscripts written in English and published after 2013 that detailed empirical, clinical, or proof-of-concept studies in which a virtual environment using a head-mounted display was used to assess EF in an adult population. A tabular synthesis method was used in which validation details from each study, including comparative assessments and scores, were systematically organized in a table. The results were summed and qualitatively analyzed to provide a comprehensive overview of the findings. RESULTS The search retrieved 555 unique articles, of which 19 (3.4%) met the inclusion criteria. The reviewed studies encompassed EF and associated higher-order cognitive functions such as inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, planning, and attention. VR assessments commonly underwent validation against gold-standard traditional tasks. However, discrepancies were observed, with some studies lacking reported a priori planned correlations, omitting detailed descriptions of the EF constructs evaluated using the VR paradigms, and frequently reporting incomplete results. Notably, only 4 of the 19 (21%) studies evaluated cybersickness, and 5 of the 19 (26%) studies included user experience assessments. CONCLUSIONS Although it acknowledges the potential of VR paradigms for assessing EF, the evidence has limitations. The methodological and psychometric properties of the included studies were inconsistently addressed, raising concerns about their validity and reliability. Infrequent monitoring of adverse effects such as cybersickness and considerable variability in sample sizes may limit interpretation and hinder psychometric evaluation. Several recommendations are proposed to improve the theory and practice of immersive VR assessments of EF. Future studies should explore the integration of biosensors with VR systems and the capabilities of VR in the context of spatial navigation assessments. Despite considerable promise, the systematic and validated implementation of VR assessments is essential for ensuring their practical utility in real-world applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Kirkham
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Imaging Facility, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Lars Kooijman
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Lucy Albertella
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Imaging Facility, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Dan Myles
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Imaging Facility, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Queensland Institute of Medical Research Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Kristian Rotaru
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Imaging Facility, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
- Monash Business School, Monash University, Caufield, Australia
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Zhou Y, Zhao Y, Xiang Z, Yan Z, Shu L, Xu X, Zhang L, Tian X. A dual-task-embedded virtual reality system for intelligent quantitative assessment of cognitive processing speed. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1158650. [PMID: 37063104 PMCID: PMC10097903 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1158650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Processing speed is defined as the ability to quickly process information, which is generally considered as one of the affected cognitive functions of multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia. Paper-pencil type tests are traditionally used in the assessment of processing speed. However, these tests generally need to be conducted under the guidance of clinicians in a specific environment, which limits their application in cognitive assessment or training in daily life. Therefore, this paper proposed an intelligent evaluation method of processing speed to assist clinicians in diagnosis. Methods We created an immersive virtual street embedded with Stroop task (VR-Street). The behavior and performance information was obtained by performing the dual-task of street-crossing and Stroop, and a 50-participant dataset was established with the label of standard scale. Utilizing Pearson correlation coefficient to find the relationship between the dual-task features and the cognitive test results, and an intelligent evaluation model was developed using machine learning. Results Statistical analysis showed that all Stroop task features were correlated with cognitive test results, and some behavior features also showed correlation. The estimated results showed that the proposed method can estimate the processing speed score with an adequate accuracy (mean absolute error of 0.800, relative accuracy of 0.916 and correlation coefficient of 0.804). The combination of Stroop features and behavior features showed better performance than single task features. Discussion The results of this work indicates that the dual-task design in this study better mobilizes participants' attention and cognitive resources, and more fully reflects participants' cognitive processing speed. The proposed method provides a new opportunity for accurate quantitative evaluation of cognitive function through virtual reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhao Zhou
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yixuan Zhao
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zirui Xiang
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhixin Yan
- School of Future Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lin Shu
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- School of Future Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Pazhou Lab, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Lin Shu,
| | - Xiangmin Xu
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- School of Future Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Zhongshan Institute of Modern Industrial Technology of South China, University of Technology, Zhongshan, China
| | - Lulu Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiang Tian
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
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Borgnis F, Baglio F, Pedroli E, Rossetto F, Uccellatore L, Oliveira JAG, Riva G, Cipresso P. Available Virtual Reality-Based Tools for Executive Functions: A Systematic Review. Front Psychol 2022; 13:833136. [PMID: 35478738 PMCID: PMC9036486 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.833136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Executive dysfunctions constitute a significant public health problem: their high impact on everyday life makes it a priority to identify early strategies for evaluating and rehabilitating these disorders in a real-life context. The ecological limitation of traditional neuropsychological tests and several difficulties in administering tests or training in real-life scenarios have paved the way to use Virtual Reality-based tools to evaluate and rehabilitate Executive Functions (EFs) in real-life. Objective This work aims to conduct a systematic review to provide a detailed description of the VR-based tools currently developed for the evaluation and rehabilitation of EFs. Methods We systematically searched for original manuscripts regarding VR tools and EFs by looking for titles and abstracts in the PubMed, Scopus, PsycInfo, and Web of Science databases up to November 2021 that contained the following keywords “Virtual Reality” AND “Executive function*.” Results and Conclusion We analyzed 301 articles, of which 100 were included. Our work shows that available VR-based tools appear promising solutions for an ecological assessment and treatment of EFs in healthy subjects and several clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Borgnis
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Elisa Pedroli
- Applied Technology for Neuro-Psychology Lab, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Milan, Italy
- Faculty of Psychology, eCampus University, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Lidia Uccellatore
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Riva
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
- Applied Technology for Neuro-Psychology Lab, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Milan, Italy
| | - Pietro Cipresso
- Applied Technology for Neuro-Psychology Lab, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- *Correspondence: Pietro Cipresso
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Kim E, Han J, Choi H, Prié Y, Vigier T, Bulteau S, Kwon GH. Examining the Academic Trends in Neuropsychological Tests for Executive Functions Using Virtual Reality: Systematic Literature Review. JMIR Serious Games 2021; 9:e30249. [PMID: 34822341 PMCID: PMC8663439 DOI: 10.2196/30249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In neuropsychology, fully immersive virtual reality (VR) has been spotlighted as a promising tool. It is considered that VR not only overcomes the existing limitation of neuropsychological tests but is also appropriate for treating executive functions (EFs) within activities of daily living (ADL) due to its high ecological validity. While fully immersive VR offers new possibilities of neuropsychological tests, there are few studies that overview the intellectual landscape and academic trends in the research related to mainly targeted EFs with fully immersive VR. Objective The objective of this study is to get an overview of the research trends that use VR in neuropsychological tests and to analyze the research trends using fully immersive VR neuropsychological tests with experimental articles. Methods This review was carried out according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Articles were searched in three web databases using keywords related to VR, EFs, and cognitive abilities. The study was conducted in two steps, keyword analysis and in-depth systematic review. In the web database search from 2000 to 2019, 1167 articles were initially collected, of which 234 articles in the eligibility phase were used to conduct keyword analysis and a total of 47 articles were included for systematic review. Results In keyword analysis, the number of articles focused on dementia including the keywords “MCI,” “SCD,” and “dementia” were highlighted over the period, rather than other symptoms. In addition, we identified that the use of behavioral and physiological data in virtual environments (VEs) has dramatically increased in recent studies. In the systematic review, we focused on the purpose of study, assessment, treatment, and validation of usability and structure. We found that treatment studies and uncategorized studies including presence and cybersickness issues have emerged in the recent period. In addition, the target symptoms and range of participants were diversified. Conclusions There has been a continuously increasing interest in dealing with neuropsychology by using fully immersive VR. Target cognitive abilities have been diversified, as well as target symptoms. Moreover, the concept of embodied cognition was transplanted in this research area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Euisung Kim
- Graduate School of Technology and Innovation Management, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jieun Han
- Graduate School of Technology and Innovation Management, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hojin Choi
- Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yannick Prié
- Laboratory of Digital Science of Nantes (LS2N), CNRS UMR6004, Nantes Université, Nantes, France
| | - Toinon Vigier
- Laboratory of Digital Science of Nantes (LS2N), CNRS UMR6004, Nantes Université, Nantes, France
| | - Samuel Bulteau
- CHU Nantes, Psychiatry Department, Nantes, France.,INSERM U1246, SPHERE, University of Nantes, University of Tours, Nantes, France
| | - Gyu Hyun Kwon
- Graduate School of Technology and Innovation Management, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Barnett M, Sawyer J, Moore J. An experimental investigation of the impact of rapport on Stroop test performance. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-ADULT 2020; 29:941-945. [PMID: 33032451 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2020.1828081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Rapport in the context of neuropsychological testing refers to the level of interpersonal ease between examiner and examinee. However, scant research has examined the impact of rapport on neuropsychological test performance. The purpose of this between-subjects experiment was to investigate the impact of rapport on Stroop test performance. College students (N = 114) were randomly assigned to either a high or a low rapport condition and administered the D-KEFS Color-Word Interference Test. Individuals in the low rapport condition took longer to complete the Inhibition Trial of the Stroop test but did not vary on the Inhibition/Switching Trial. Low rapport may distract examinees, sapping attentional resources on the Inhibition Trial.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jenna Moore
- University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
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Kourtesis P, Collina S, Doumas LAA, MacPherson SE. Technological Competence Is a Pre-condition for Effective Implementation of Virtual Reality Head Mounted Displays in Human Neuroscience: A Technological Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:342. [PMID: 31632256 PMCID: PMC6783565 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immersive virtual reality (VR) emerges as a promising research and clinical tool. However, several studies suggest that VR induced adverse symptoms and effects (VRISE) may undermine the health and safety standards, and the reliability of the scientific results. In the current literature review, the technical reasons for the adverse symptomatology are investigated to provide suggestions and technological knowledge for the implementation of VR head-mounted display (HMD) systems in cognitive neuroscience. The technological systematic literature indicated features pertinent to display, sound, motion tracking, navigation, ergonomic interactions, user experience, and computer hardware that should be considered by the researchers. Subsequently, a meta-analysis of 44 neuroscientific or neuropsychological studies involving VR HMD systems was performed. The meta-analysis of the VR studies demonstrated that new generation HMDs induced significantly less VRISE and marginally fewer dropouts. Importantly, the commercial versions of the new generation HMDs with ergonomic interactions had zero incidents of adverse symptomatology and dropouts. HMDs equivalent to or greater than the commercial versions of contemporary HMDs accompanied with ergonomic interactions are suitable for implementation in cognitive neuroscience. In conclusion, researchers' technological competency, along with meticulous methods and reports pertinent to software, hardware, and VRISE, are paramount to ensure the health and safety standards and the reliability of neuroscientific results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Kourtesis
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Lab of Experimental Psychology, Suor Orsola Benincasa University of Naples, Naples, Italy.,Interdepartmental Centre for Planning and Research "Scienza Nuova", Suor Orsola Benincasa University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Simona Collina
- Lab of Experimental Psychology, Suor Orsola Benincasa University of Naples, Naples, Italy.,Interdepartmental Centre for Planning and Research "Scienza Nuova", Suor Orsola Benincasa University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Leonidas A A Doumas
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah E MacPherson
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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Romero-Ayuso D, Castillero-Perea Á, González P, Navarro E, Molina-Massó JP, Funes MJ, Ariza-Vega P, Toledano-González A, Triviño-Juárez JM. Assessment of cognitive instrumental activities of daily living: a systematic review. Disabil Rehabil 2019; 43:1342-1358. [PMID: 31549907 DOI: 10.1080/09638288.2019.1665720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cognitive instrumental activities of daily living are particularly related to executive functions, such as scheduling appointments, monthly payments, managing the household economy, shopping or taking the bus. The aim of this systematic review was to determine the available tests for the assessment of executive functions with ecological validity to predict individuals' functioning. MATERIALS AND METHODS An electronic search was conducted in MEDLINE, Cochrane Central, PsyCInfo and IEEE Xplore until May 2019, in addition to a manual search. The PRISMA criteria and the Covidence platform were used to select articles and extract data. RESULTS After applying the search selection criteria, 76 studies were identified. They referred to 110 tools to assess instrumental activities of daily living. Those that have received most attention are related to menu preparation and shopping. Performance-based measures are the most widely used traditional methods. Most tests were aimed at the adult population with acquired brain damage, cognitive impairment or dementia. There was a predominance of tests based on the Multiple Errands Test paradigm. CONCLUSIONS In recent years, it has increased the number of tools that assess the instrumental activities of daily living based on technologies such as personal or environmental sensors and serious games.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONAssessment of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living through performance-based measures is especially useful for the early detection of dysfunctions or preclinical disability.Difficulties in performing instrumental activities of daily living are closely associated with deficits in executive functions and prospective memory.Activities of Daily Living can be understood as multitasks.The use of virtual reality-based tests was shown to be sensitive to the detection of cognitive deficits in Activities of Daily Living.An advantage of using virtual reality in assessments is that it can help to predict the level of personal autonomy in patients who are in an institutional environment and could be a first approximation to the real environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dulce Romero-Ayuso
- Division of Occupational Therapy, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Pascual González
- LoUISE Research Group, Computing Systems Department, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Elena Navarro
- LoUISE Research Group, Computing Systems Department, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - José Pascual Molina-Massó
- LoUISE Research Group, Computing Systems Department, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - M Jesús Funes
- Mind, Brain and Behaviour Research Center (CIMCYC) and Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Patrocinio Ariza-Vega
- Division of Occupational Therapy, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Rehabilitation and Traumatology Service, Virgen de Las Nieves University Hospital of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Abel Toledano-González
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Occupational Therapy, Speech Therapy and Nursing, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
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Sense F, van Rijn H. Probabilistic motor sequence learning in a virtual reality serial reaction time task. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198759. [PMID: 29894504 PMCID: PMC5997338 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The serial reaction time task is widely used to study learning and memory. The task is traditionally administered by showing target positions on a computer screen and collecting responses using a button box or keyboard. By comparing response times to random or sequenced items or by using different transition probabilities, various forms of learning can be studied. However, this traditional laboratory setting limits the number of possible experimental manipulations. Here, we present a virtual reality version of the serial reaction time task and show that learning effects emerge as expected despite the novel way in which responses are collected. We also show that response times are distributed as expected. The current experiment was conducted in a blank virtual reality room to verify these basic principles. For future applications, the technology can be used to modify the virtual reality environment in any conceivable way, permitting a wide range of previously impossible experimental manipulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Sense
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Hedderik van Rijn
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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