Unintentional acetaminophen ingestion in children and the potential for hepatotoxicity

The impact of updated national guidelines for managing unintentional paediatric liquid paracetamol exposures: a retrospective poisons centre study

INTRODUCTION

In 2015, Australia and New Zealand treatment guidelines recommended a 2 h paracetamol serum concentration for risk assessment of unintentional paracetamol liquid exposures. We assess our experience with this approach.

METHODS

Retrospective case review of children <6 years-old with liquid paracetamol overdoses referred to a regional poisons information centre January 2017 to August 2022. We extracted data on the exposure and management from the poisons information centre and hospital medical records. We identified additional cases with two paracetamol concentrations obtained from September 2022 to June 2024.

RESULTS

Of 437 paediatric poisonings, 271 were eligible for inclusion. The median age was 24 months, the median time to presentation was 120 min, and paracetamol was the sole ingestant in 92% of cases. Blood testing was recommended in 131 patients (48.3%), occurring at 2 h post-ingestion in 62 patients (47.3%). Testing at a later time was mostly due to delayed presentation, including to hospitals unable to measure paracetamol concentrations. Eighteen patients (16.7%) had repeat blood testing, and five additional cases were identified in the subsequent period. Overall, the concentration decreased in 19 patients (83%), but in three patients it increased, from 73 mg/L to 81 mg/L (0.49-0.54 mmol/L), from 154 mg/L to 179 mg/L (1.03-1.19 mmol/L), and from 56 mg/L to 115 mg/L (0.37-0.77 mmol/L. Symptomatic patients were more likely to receive a second blood test or acetylcysteine while awaiting investigations. Of 19 patients administered acetylcysteine, it was discontinued in five due to low paracetamol serum concentrations. All patients recovered.

DISCUSSION

Guidelines were followed in >90% of patients and this testing regimen shortened length of stay. Based on these data, Australian treatment guidelines now recommend repeat testing for 2 h paracetamol serum concentrations >100 mg/L (0.67 mmol/L).

CONCLUSION

A paracetamol serum concentration between 2 h and 4 h post-ingestion in children <6 years-old with unintentional poisonings of paracetamol liquid can facilitate medical discharge.

Emergency department presentations for deliberate self-harm and suicidal ideation in 25-39 years olds following agency-notified child maltreatment: results from the Childhood Adversity and Lifetime Morbidity (CALM) study

AIMS

To compare prospective reports of child maltreatment (CM) with emergency department (ED) presentations for deliberate self-harm (DSH) and suicidal ideation in individuals aged between 25 and 39 years old.

METHODS

Linked records between the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy birth cohort and Queensland administrative health data were used, which included notifications to child protection agencies for CM. ED presentations for individuals aged between 25 and 39 years of age for suicidal ideation, suicidal behaviour or poisoning by paracetamol or psychotropic medications where the intention was unclear were examined using logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 609 (10.1%) individuals were the subject of one or more CM notifications for neglect or physical, sexual or emotional abuse before the age of 15 years. Of these, 250 (4.1%) presented at least once to ED for DSH and/or suicidal ideation between 25 and 39 years of age. In adjusted analysis, any notification of CM was associated with significantly increased odds of presenting to ED for these reasons (aOR = 2.80; 95% CI = 2.04-3.84). In sensitivity analyses, any notification of CM increased the odds of the combined outcome of DSH and suicidal ideation by 275% (aOR = 2.75; 95% CI = 1.96-4.06) and increased the odds of DSH alone by 269% (aOR = 2.69; 95% CI = 1.65-4.41).

CONCLUSIONS

All CM types (including emotional abuse and neglect) were associated with ED presentations for DSH and suicidal ideation in individuals between 25 and 39 years of age. These findings have important implications for the prevention of DSH, suicidal ideation and other health outcomes. They also underscore the importance of trauma-informed care in ED for all individuals presenting with DSH and suicidal ideation.

Therapeutic Management of Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Liver Injury and Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity in the Paediatric Population: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a rare but serious adverse event that can progress to acute liver failure (ALF). The evidence for treatment of DILI in children is scarce.

Objective

We aimed to comprehensively review the available literature on the therapies for both acetaminophen overdose (APAP) and idiosyncratic DILI in the paediatric population.

Methods

We included original articles conducted in a paediatric population (< 18 years) in which a therapeutic intervention was described to manage APAP or idiosyncratic DILI. Findings were summarized based on age groups (preterm newborn neonates, term and post-term neonates, infants, children and adolescents).

Results

Overall, 25 publications (fifteen case reports, six case series and four retrospective cohort studies) were included, including a total of 140 paediatric DILI cases, from preterm newborn neonates to adolescents. N-acetylcysteine was used to treat 19 APAP cases. N-acetylcysteine (n = 14), ursodeoxycholic acid (n = 3), corticosteroids (n = 31), carnitine (n = 16) and the combination of glycyrrhizin, reduced glutathione, polyene phosphatidylcholine and S-adenosylmethionine (n = 31) were the therapeutic options for treating idiosyncratic DILI. The molecular adsorbent recirculating system was used in the management of either APAP (n = 4) or idiosyncratic DILI (n = 2), while 20 paediatric ALF cases received continuous renal replacement therapy.

Conclusions

This systematic review identified DILI in the paediatric population who have received specific treatment. These interventions appear to be mainly extrapolated from low-quality evidence from the adult population. Thus, there is a need for high-quality studies to test the efficacy of known and novel therapies to treat DILI specifically addressed to the paediatric population.

PROSPERO registration number CRD42021214702.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40264-022-01224-w.

Hepatotoxicity in a child following an accidental overdose of liquid paracetamol

Introduction: Accidental pediatric liquid paracetamol exposure is common. Most children do not require treatment with acetylcysteine and acute liver injury is rare.Case report: An otherwise well 3-year-old (15.4 kg) girl with recent vomiting and low-grade fever presented 1 h post-accidental ingestion of up to 150 mL of 24 mg/mL (240 mg/kg) of liquid paracetamol. Paracetamol concentrations 2 and 4 h post-ingestion were 105 and 97 mg/L, respectively, both below the nomogram treatment threshold so acetylcysteine was not administered. The ALT was elevated to 52 U/L 4 h post-ingestion, and then 219 U/L at 17 h, so intravenous acetylcysteine was commenced at 25 h. ALT peaked at 1393 U/L 5d post-ingestion, and INR peaked at 1.5 at 44 h post-ingestion. Acetylcysteine continued for 64 h and she made an uneventful recovery. Paracetamol metabolites were measured including, nontoxic glucuronide and sulphate conjugates and toxic cytochrome P450 (CYP) metabolites (cysteine and mercapturate). The apparent paracetamol half-life was 6.3 h. Her CYP metabolites were higher than usual, 11% of total metabolites. Glucuronide and sulphate conjugates accounted for 71 and 18% of total metabolites, respectively.Conclusion: This uncommon case of hepatotoxicity in a child following accidental liquid paracetamol ingestion may have been due to increased susceptibility from a recent viral illness with decreased oral intake, as evidenced by the higher proportion of CYP metabolites.

Case Report: Paracetamol Poisoning in a 2-Year-Old Child – from International Overview to the Role of the Hong Kong Poison Information Centre

We report a 2-year-old girl suffering from acute liver failure as a result of paracetamol poisoning. The child successfully recovered after intensive care. We performed literature search for the past decade and found that the pathophysiological response in the child was different from that of the adult. Despite paracetamol poisoning being one of the most common poisonings in the world, there is still no consensus in the treatment protocol. Hence the role of the Hong Kong Poison Information Centre is briefly discussed.

Hepatotoxicity induced by acute and chronic paracetamol overdose in children: Where do we stand?

BACKGROUND

There are few data on hepatotoxicity induced by acute or chronic paracetamol poisoning in the pediatric population. Paracetamol poisoning data can reveal the weaknesses of paracetamol poisoning management guidelines.

METHODS

We retrospectively studied the patients of less than 18 years old with measurable paracetamol levels, who were brought to the emergency department (ED) of La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain, for suspected paracetamol overdoses between 2005 and 2010.

RESULTS

Ninety-two patients with suspected paracetamol poisoning were identified. In 2007, the incidence of paracetamol poisoning in the pediatric population was 0.8 [Poisson-95% confidence interval (CI): 0.03-3.69] per 10 000 inhabitants aged less than 18 years. The incidence in the same year was 1.53 (Poisson-95% CI: 0.24-5.57) per 10 000 patients in the pediatric ED. The most common cause of poisoning was attempted suicide (47.8%) in teenagers with a median age of 15 years, followed by accidental poisoning (42.2%) in babies with a median age of 2.65 years. Difference was seen in the frequency of hepatotoxicity between acute and chronic poisoning cases. Only 1 of 49 patients with acute poisoning showed hepatotoxicity [acute liver failure (ALF)], whereas 7 of 8 patients with chronic poisoning showed hepatotoxicity (3 cases of ALF). The average time to medical care was 6.83 hours for acute poisoning and 52.3 hours for chronic poisoning (P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic paracetamol poisoning is a potential risk factor for hepatotoxicity and acute liver failure. Delays in seeking medical help might be a contributing factor. Clinicians should have a higher index of clinical suspicion for this entity.

Four-hour acetaminophen concentration estimation after ingested dose based on pharmacokinetic models

INTRODUCTION

The United Kingdom has recently changed the indications for N-acetylcysteine treatment for acetaminophen intoxication. Any ingestion over 75 mg/kg is now referred to the hospital. A model based on pharmacokinetic parameters was developed to predict 4-h acetaminophen concentration for this and other ingested doses.

METHODOLOGY

EMBASE and Medline were searched to obtain values for volume of distribution, absorption, and elimination constants and bioavailability for acetaminophen. Four-hour concentrations were calculated for ingestion doses currently recommended for hospital referral in different countries. Calculated plasma concentrations at 4 h for several doses were plotted against the Rumack-Matthew and the United Kingdom treatment lines.

RESULTS

Six articles were used for the calculations (4 adult and 2 pediatric). In order to achieve a 4-h acetaminophen concentration of 100 mg/L, doses (mg/kg ± 99.9CI) of 180.5 ± 43.2 for adults and 396.1 ± 115.5 for children were calculated.

DISCUSSION

A dose of 75 mg/kg would likely yield a 4-h acetaminophen concentrations well below 100 mg/L. Medical toxicologists and poison information specialists are left without evidence-based guidance for which patients or which ingestion history would now warrant referral to hospital for acetaminophen concentration measurement. Larger toxicokinetic studies in acetaminophen overdose are needed to define ingestion dose for referral to hospital.

A review of acetaminophen poisoning

Acetaminophen poisoning remains one of the more common drugs taken in overdose with potentially fatal consequences. Early recognition and prompt treatment with N-acetylcysteine can prevent hepatic injury. With acute overdose, the Rumack-Matthew nomogram is a useful tool to assess risk and guide management. Equally common to acute overdose is the repeated use of excessive amounts of acetaminophen. Simultaneous ingestion of several different acetaminophen-containing products may result in excessive dosage. These patients also benefit from N-acetylcysteine. Standard courses of N-acetylcysteine may need to be extended in patients with persistently elevated plasma concentrations of acetaminophen or with signs of hepatic injury.

Calcium Channel Blocker Ingestion: An Evidence-Based Consensus Guideline for Out-of-Hospital Management

In 2003, U.S. poison control centers were consulted after 9650 ingestions of calcium channel blockers (CCBs), including 57 deaths. This represents more than one-third of the deaths reported to the American Association of Poison Control Centers' Toxic Exposure Surveillance System database that were associated with cardiovascular drugs and emphasizes the importance of developing a guideline for the out-of-hospital management of calcium channel blocker poisoning. The objective of this guideline is to assist poison center personnel in the appropriate out-of-hospital triage and initial management of patients with suspected ingestions of calcium channel blockers. An evidence-based expert consensus process was used to create this guideline. This guideline applies to ingestion of calcium channel blockers alone and is based on an assessment of current scientific and clinical information. The expert consensus panel recognizes that specific patient care decisions may be at variance with this guideline and are the prerogative of the patient and the health professionals providing care, considering all of the circumstances involved. The panel's recommendations follow. The grade of recommendation is in parentheses. 1) All patients with stated or suspected self-harm or the recipient of a potentially malicious administration of a CCB should be referred to an emergency department immediately regardless of the amount ingested (Grade D). 2) Asymptomatic patients are unlikely to develop symptoms if the interval between the ingestion and the call is greater than 6 hours for immediate-release products, 18 hours for modified-release products other than verapamil, and 24 hours for modified-release verapamil. These patients do not need referral or prolonged observation (Grade D). 3) Patients without evidence of self-harm should have further evaluation, including determination of the precise dose ingested, history of other medical conditions, and the presence of co-ingestants. Ingestion of either an amount that exceeds the usual maximum single therapeutic dose or an amount equal to or greater than the lowest reported toxic dose, whichever is lower (see Table 5), would warrant consideration of referral to an emergency department (Grade D). 4) Do not induce emesis (Grade D). 5) Consider the administration of activated charcoal orally if available and no contraindications are present. However, do not delay transportation in order to administer charcoal (Grade D). 6) For patients who merit evaluation in an emergency department, ambulance transportation is recommended because of the potential for life-threatening complications. Provide usual supportive care en route to the hospital, including intravenous fluids for hypotension. Consider use of intravenous calcium, glucagon, and epinephrine for severe hypotension during transport, if available (Grade D). 7) Depending on the specific circumstances, follow-up calls should be made to determine outcome at appropriate intervals based on the clinical judgment of the poison center staff (Grade D).

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor poisoning: An evidence-based consensus guideline for out-of-hospital management

A review of US poison center data for 2004 showed over 48,000 exposures to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). A guideline that determines the conditions for emergency department referral and prehospital care could potentially optimize patient outcome, avoid unnecessary emergency department visits, reduce health care costs, and reduce life disruption for patients and caregivers. An evidence-based expert consensus process was used to create the guideline. Relevant articles were abstracted by a trained physician researcher. The first draft of the guideline was created by the lead author. The entire panel discussed and refined the guideline before distribution to secondary reviewers for comment. The panel then made changes based on the secondary review comments. The objective of this guideline is to assist poison center personnel in the appropriate out-of-hospital triage and initial management of patients with a suspected ingestion of an SSRI by 1) describing the process by which an ingestion of an SSRI might be managed, 2) identifying the key decision elements in managing cases of SSRI ingestion, 3) providing clear and practical recommendations that reflect the current state of knowledge, and 4) identifying needs for research. This guideline applies to ingestion of immediate-release forms of SSRIs alone. Co-ingestion of additional substances might require different referral and management recommendations depending on their combined toxicities. This guideline is based on an assessment of current scientific and clinical information. The expert consensus panel recognizes that specific patient care decisions may be at variance with this guideline and are the prerogative of the patient and the health professionals providing care, considering all of the circumstances involved. This guideline does not substitute for clinical judgment. Recommendations are in chronological order of likely clinical use. The grade of recommendation is in parentheses. 1) All patients with suicidal intent, intentional abuse, or in cases in which a malicious intent is suspected (e.g., child abuse or neglect) should be referred to an emergency department. This activity should be guided by local poison center procedures. In general, this should occur regardless of the dose reported (Grade D). 2) Any patient already experiencing any symptoms other than mild effects (mild effects include vomiting, somnolence [lightly sedated and arousable with speaking voice or light touch], mydriasis, or diaphoresis) should be transported to an emergency department. Transportation via ambulance should be considered based on the condition of the patient and the length of time it will take the patient to arrive at the emergency department (Grade D). 3) Asymptomatic patients or those with mild effects (defined above) following isolated unintentional acute SSRI ingestions of up to five times an initial adult therapeutic dose (i.e., citalopram 100 mg, escitalopram 50 mg, fluoxetine 100 mg, fluvoxamine 250 mg, paroxetine 100 mg, sertraline 250 mg) can be observed at home with instructions to call the poison center back if symptoms develop. For patients already on an SSRI, those with ingestion of up to five times their own single therapeutic dose can be observed at home with instructions to call the poison center back if symptoms develop (Grade D). 4) The poison center should consider making follow-up calls during the first 8 hours after ingestion, following its normal procedure. Consideration should be given to the time of day when home observation will take place. Observation during normal sleep hours might not reliably identify the onset of toxicity. Depending on local poison center policy, patients could be referred to an emergency department if the observation would take place during normal sleeping hours of the patient or caretaker (Grade D). 5) Do not induce emesis (Grade C). 6) The use of oral activated charcoal can be considered since the likelihood of SSRI-induced loss of consciousness or seizures is small. However, there are no data to suggest a specific clinical benefit. The routine use of out-of-hospital oral activated charcoal in patients with unintentional SSRI overdose cannot be advocated at this time (Grade C). 7) Use intravenous benzodiazepines for seizures and benzodiazepines and external cooling measures for hyperthermia (>104 degrees F [>40 degrees C]) for SSRI-induced serotonin syndrome. This should be done in consultation with and authorized by EMS medical direction, by a written treatment protocol or policy, or with direct medical oversight (Grade C).

Acetaminophen poisoning: an evidence-based consensus guideline for out-of-hospital management

The objective of this guideline is to assist poison center personnel in the appropriate out-of-hospital triage and initial management of patients with suspected ingestions of acetaminophen. An evidence-based expert consensus process was used to create this guideline. This guideline applies to ingestion of acetaminophen alone and is based on an assessment of current scientific and clinical information. The expert consensus panel recognizes that specific patient care decisions may be at variance with this guideline and are the prerogative of the patient and the health professionals providing care. The panel's recommendations follow. These recommendations are provided in chronological order of likely clinical use. The grade of recommendation is provided in parentheses. 1) The initial history obtained by the specialist in poison information should include the patient's age and intent (Grade B), the specific formulation and dose of acetaminophen, the ingestion pattern (single or multiple), duration of ingestion (Grade B), and concomitant medications that might have been ingested (Grade D). 2) Any patient with stated or suspected self-harm or who is the recipient of a potentially malicious administration of acetaminophen should be referred to an emergency department immediately regardless of the amount ingested. This referral should be guided by local poison center procedures (Grade D). 3) Activated charcoal can be considered if local poison center policies support its prehospital use, a toxic dose of acetaminophen has been taken, and fewer than 2 hours have elapsed since the ingestion (Grade A). Gastrointestinal decontamination could be particularly important if acetylcysteine cannot be administered within 8 hours of ingestion. Acute, single, unintentional ingestion of acetaminophen: 1) Any patient with signs consistent with acetaminophen poisoning (e.g., repeated vomiting, abdominal tenderness in the right upper quadrant or mental status changes) should be referred to an emergency department for evaluation (Grade D). 2) Patients less than 6 years of age should be referred to an emergency department if the estimated acute ingestion amount is unknown or is 200 mg/kg or more. Patients can be observed at home if the dose ingested is less than 200 mg/kg (Grade B). 3) Patients 6 years of age or older should be referred to an emergency department if they have ingested at least 10 g or 200 mg/kg (whichever is lower) or when the amount ingested is unknown (Grade D). 4) Patients referred to an emergency department should arrive in time to have a stat serum acetaminophen concentration determined at 4 hours after ingestion or as soon as possible thereafter. If the time of ingestion is unknown, the patient should be referred to an emergency department immediately (Grade D). 5) If the initial contact with the poison center occurs more than 36 hours after the ingestion and the patient is well, the patient does not require further evaluation for acetaminophen toxicity (Grade D). Repeated supratherapeutic ingestion of acetaminophen (RSTI): 1) Patients under 6 years of age should be referred to an emergency department immediately if they have ingested: a) 200 mg/kg or more over a single 24-hour period, or b) 150 mg/kg or more per 24-hour period for the preceding 48 hours, or c) 100 mg/kg or more per 24-hour period for the preceding 72 hours or longer (Grade C). 2) Patients 6 years of age or older should be referred to an emergency department if they have ingested: a) at least 10 g or 200 mg/kg (whichever is less) over a single 24-hour period, or b) at least 6 g or 150 mg/kg (whichever is less) per 24-hour period for the preceding 48 hours or longer. In patients with conditions purported to increase susceptibility to acetaminophen toxicity (alcoholism, isoniazid use, prolonged fasting), the dose of acetaminophen considered as RSTI should be greater than 4 g or 100 mg/kg (whichever is less) per day (Grade D). 3) Gastrointestinal decontamination is not needed (Grade D). Other recommendations: 1) The out-of-hospital management of extended-release acetaminophen or multi-drug combination products containing acetaminophen is the same as an ingestion of acetaminophen alone (Grade D). However, the effects of other drugs might require referral to an emergency department in accordance with the poison center's normal triage criteria. 2) The use of cimetidine as an antidote is not recommended (Grade A).

Drug-induced liver injury: summary of a single topic clinical research conference

Idiosyncratic drug induced liver injury (DILI) remains poorly understood. It is assumed that the affected individuals possess a rare combination of genetic and non genetic factors that, if identified, would greatly improve understanding of the underlying mechanisms. This single topic conference brought together basic scientists, translational investigators, and clinicians with an interest in DILI. The goal was to define high priority areas of investigation that will soon be made possible by The Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network (DILIN). Since 2004 DILIN has been collecting clinical data, genomic DNA and some tissues from patients who have experienced bone fide DILI. The presentations spanned many different areas of DILI, and included novel data concerning mechanisms of hepatotoxicity, new "omics" approaches, and the challenges of improving causation assessment.

Acute poisoning: understanding 90% of cases in a nutshell

The acutely poisoned patient remains a common problem facing doctors working in acute medicine in the United Kingdom and worldwide. This review examines the initial management of the acutely poisoned patient. Aspects of general management are reviewed including immediate interventions, investigations, gastrointestinal decontamination techniques, use of antidotes, methods to increase poison elimination, and psychological assessment. More common and serious poisonings caused by paracetamol, salicylates, opioids, tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, benzodiazepines, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and cocaine are discussed in detail. Specific aspects of common paediatric poisonings are reviewed.

Over-the-counter analgesics in older adults: a call for improved labelling and consumer education

The use of analgesics increases with age and on any given day 20-30% of older adults take an analgesic medication. Over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics are generally well tolerated and effective when taken for brief periods of time and at recommended dosages. However, their long-term use, use at inappropriately high doses, or use by persons with contraindications may result in adverse effects, including gastrointestinal haemorrhage, cardiovascular toxicity, renal toxicity and hepatotoxicity. Many OTC drugs are also available through a prescription, for a broader range of indications and for longer durations of use and wider dose ranges, under the assumption that healthcare providers will help patients make safe choices about analgesics. Safe and effective use of medications is one of the greatest challenges faced by healthcare providers in medicine. More than 60% of people cannot identify the active ingredient in their brand of pain reliever. Additionally, about 40% of Americans believe that OTC drugs are too weak to cause any real harm. As a result of a recent US FDA policy, the conversion of prescription to OTC medications will result in a 50% increase of OTC medications. To reduce the risks of potential adverse effects from OTC drug therapy in older adults, we propose that the use of analgesics will be enhanced through the use of patient and healthcare provider education, as well as improved labelling of OTC analgesics. Improved labelling of OTC analgesics may help consumers distinguish common analgesic ingredients in a wide variety of preparations and facilitate informed decisions concerning the use of OTC drugs.

Do Poison Center Guidelines Adversely Affect Patient Outcomes as Triage Referral Values Increase?

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to determine whether patient outcomes were adversely affected as healthcare referral values increased for two common poisonings: acute, unintentional acetaminophen (APAP) poisonings and acute, unintentional iron (Fe) poisonings. We hypothesized that symptom rates would increase with high referral values.

METHODS

Qualifying 1997 exposures were separated by substance (APAP or Fe) and then further stratified into three healthcare referral value ranges. Symptomatic and asymptomatic patients were totaled for each stratum. Expected vs. observed distributions of symptomatic and asymptomatic patients across triage referral strata for a given substance and treatment location were compared using chi-square test for independence. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test was used to compare the distribution of patients across referral strata for home vs. healthcare facility locations for a specific substance.

RESULTS

There were no statistically significant differences in the distribution of symptomatic patients within referral value strata for APAP or for Fe. There was also no difference in distribution of symptomatic patients across strata when comparing home vs. healthcare facility for APAP and Fe.

CONCLUSION

Referral values as high as 201 mg/kg for APAP and 61 mg/kg for Fe do not appear to adversely affect patient outcomes.

Pediatric toxicologic concerns

Pediatric poisonings account for significant morbidity in the United States each year. Clinicians must keep current with advances in toxicology to be familiar with the latest recommended treatment regimens and antidotes. They also must be familiar in identifying toxidromes and important physical examination findings. Having these skills can enable the clinician to determine who is at risk for significant morbidity or mortality and to provide the appropriate medical care.

Drug-induced liver disease

This year's review is divided into several sections: the first describes drug withdrawals and new general reviews of drug-induced liver disease (DILD), including a review of a classification of drug injury. We review agents newly described as causing DILD, and new reports of DILD from established agents appearing in the year 2000. New aspects regarding the treatment of acetaminophen toxicity are included, and in the final section we deal with prevention of DILD as well as issues surrounding the use of potentially hepatotoxic medications in patients with underlying chronic disease.

Management of drug-induced liver disease

The treatment and prevention of drug-induced liver injury starts with the recognition of hepatotoxicity at the earliest possible time so that the suspected drug can be discontinued expeditiously. Both liver enzyme monitoring and vigilance for signs of hypersensitivity involving the liver are useful strategies for many agents known to cause hepatocellular necrosis leading to liver failure. Specific antidotes to prevent or limit hepatic damage exist for only a few drugs, the most important being N-acetylcysteine for the treatment of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. Corticosteroids are of unproven benefit in the setting of fulminant failure. Ursodiol may be helpful in instances of cholestatic injury. For other agents, supportive measures and the increasing use of liver-assist devices as well as emergency liver transplantation are available when drug injury evolves into irreversible liver failure. It is hoped that a better understanding of hepatotoxicity mechanisms will lead to the development of more specific and effective forms of therapy in the near future.