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Longtine AG, Greenberg NT, Bernaldo de Quirós Y, Brunt VE. The gut microbiome as a modulator of arterial function and age-related arterial dysfunction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2024; 326:H986-H1005. [PMID: 38363212 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00764.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The arterial system is integral to the proper function of all other organs and tissues. Arterial function is impaired with aging, and arterial dysfunction contributes to the development of numerous age-related diseases, including cardiovascular diseases. The gut microbiome has emerged as an important regulator of both normal host physiological function and impairments in function with aging. The purpose of this review is to summarize more recently published literature demonstrating the role of the gut microbiome in supporting normal arterial development and function and in modulating arterial dysfunction with aging in the absence of overt disease. The gut microbiome can be altered due to a variety of exposures, including physiological aging processes. We explore mechanisms by which the gut microbiome may contribute to age-related arterial dysfunction, with a focus on changes in various gut microbiome-related compounds in circulation. In addition, we discuss how modulating circulating levels of these compounds may be a viable therapeutic approach for improving artery function with aging. Finally, we identify and discuss various experimental considerations and research gaps/areas of future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail G Longtine
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States
| | - Nathan T Greenberg
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States
| | - Yara Bernaldo de Quirós
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States
- Instituto Universitario de Sanidad Animal y Seguridad Alimentaria, Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
| | - Vienna E Brunt
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States
- Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States
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Edwards JM, Roy S, Tomcho JC, Schreckenberger ZJ, Chakraborty S, Bearss NR, Saha P, McCarthy CG, Vijay-Kumar M, Joe B, Wenceslau CF. Microbiota are critical for vascular physiology: Germ-free status weakens contractility and induces sex-specific vascular remodeling in mice. Vascul Pharmacol 2020; 125-126:106633. [PMID: 31843471 PMCID: PMC7036036 DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2019.106633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Commensal microbiota within a holobiont contribute to the overall health of the host via mutualistic symbiosis. Disturbances in such symbiosis is prominently correlated with a variety of diseases affecting the modern society of humans including cardiovascular diseases, which are the number one contributors to human mortality. Given that a hallmark of all cardiovascular diseases is changes in vascular function, we hypothesized that depleting microbiota from a holobiont would induce vascular dysfunction. To test this hypothesis, young mice of both sexes raised in germ-free conditions were examined vascular contractility and structure. Here we observed that male and female germ-free mice presented a decrease in contraction of resistance arteries. These changes were more pronounced in germ-free males than in germ-free females mice. Furthermore, there was a distinct change in vascular remodeling between males and females germ-free mice. Resistance arteries from male germ-free mice demonstrated increased vascular stiffness, as shown by the leftward shift in the stress-strain curve and inward hypotrophic remodeling, a characteristic of chronic reduction in blood flow. On the other hand, resistance arteries from germ-free female mice were similar in the stress-strain curves to that of conventionally raised mice, but were distinctly different and showed outward hypertrophic remodeling, a characteristic seen in aging. Interestingly, we observed that reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation from bone marrow derived neutrophils is blunted in female germ-free mice, but it is exacerbated in male germ-free mice. In conclusion, these observations indicate that commensal microbiota of a holobiont are central to maintain proper vascular function and structure homeostasis, especially in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonnelle M Edwards
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Shaunak Roy
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Jeremy C Tomcho
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Zachary J Schreckenberger
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Saroj Chakraborty
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Nicole R Bearss
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Piu Saha
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Cameron G McCarthy
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Matam Vijay-Kumar
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Bina Joe
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Camilla F Wenceslau
- Microbiome Consortium, Center for Hypertension and Precision Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA.
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Carter PB, Norin E, Swennes AG. Gnotobiotics and the Microbiome. THE LABORATORY RAT 2020. [PMCID: PMC7158190 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-814338-4.00021-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of germfree (GF), gnotobiotic (GN), and defined flora (DF) laboratory rats, relating their history, traditional and modern derivation procedures, the anatomy and physiology, and their use in the study of mammalian host–microbiome relationships. Extensive literature on the nutrition and physiology of GF rats and the expanding library of immunological reagents have increased the research utility of GF, GN, or DF rats. Such rats have been extensively used in metabolic experiments as nucleus seed stocks for the production of disease-free animals and as tools for infectious disease studies, among others. The chapter also presents research applications of GF rats that are particularly suitable for testing candidate viral carcinogens since they are uniquely free of all known viruses, for pathology studies in the distinguishing of primary mediation lesions from those associated with infections, and the study of the biological effects of radiation.
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Abstract
The recognition that intestinal microbiota exert profound effects on human health has led to major advances in our understanding of disease processes. Studies over the past 20 years have shown that host components, including components of the host immune system, shape the microbial community. Pathogenic alterations in commensal microorganisms contribute to disease manifestations that are generally considered to be noncommunicable, such as inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes mellitus and liver disease, through a variety of mechanisms, including effects on host immunity. More recent studies have shed new light on how the immune system and microbiota might also drive the pathogenesis of renal disorders. In this Review, we discuss the latest insights into the mechanisms regulating the microbiome composition, with a focus both on genetics and environmental factors, and describe how commensal microorganisms calibrate innate and adaptive immune responses to affect the activation threshold for pathogenic stimulations. We discuss the mechanisms that lead to intestinal epithelial barrier inflammation and the relevance of certain bacteria to the pathogenesis of two common kidney-based disorders: hypertension and renal stone disease. Limitations of current approaches to microbiota research are also highlighted, emphasizing the need to move beyond studies of correlation to causation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Knauf
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Section of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - J Richard Brewer
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Richard A Flavell
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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Felizardo R, Watanabe IK, Dardi P, Rossoni L, Câmara N. The interplay among gut microbiota, hypertension and kidney diseases: The role of short-chain fatty acids. Pharmacol Res 2019; 141:366-377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Abstract
Hypertension is the leading risk factor for heart disease and stroke, and is estimated to cause 9.4 million deaths globally every year. The pathogenesis of hypertension is complex, but lifestyle factors such as diet are important contributors to the disease. High dietary intake of fruit and vegetables is associated with reduced blood pressure and lower cardiovascular mortality. A critical relationship between dietary intake and the composition of the gut microbiota has been described in the literature, and a growing body of evidence supports the role of the gut microbiota in the regulation of blood pressure. In this Review, we describe the mechanisms by which the gut microbiota and its metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids, trimethylamine N-oxide, and lipopolysaccharides, act on downstream cellular targets to prevent or contribute to the pathogenesis of hypertension. These effects have a direct influence on tissues such as the kidney, the endothelium, and the heart. Finally, we consider the role of the gut microbiota in resistant hypertension, the possible intergenerational effect of the gut microbiota on blood pressure regulation, and the promising therapeutic potential of gut microbiota modification to improve health and prevent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francine Z Marques
- Heart Failure Research Group, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Charles R Mackay
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, 23 Innovation Walk, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - David M Kaye
- Heart Failure Research Group, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia.,Heart Centre, Alfred Hospital, Philip Block, Level 3, 55 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia.,Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
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Li J, Zhao F, Wang Y, Chen J, Tao J, Tian G, Wu S, Liu W, Cui Q, Geng B, Zhang W, Weldon R, Auguste K, Yang L, Liu X, Chen L, Yang X, Zhu B, Cai J. Gut microbiota dysbiosis contributes to the development of hypertension. MICROBIOME 2017; 5:14. [PMID: 28143587 PMCID: PMC5286796 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-016-0222-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 909] [Impact Index Per Article: 129.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, the potential role of gut microbiome in metabolic diseases has been revealed, especially in cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension is one of the most prevalent cardiovascular diseases worldwide, yet whether gut microbiota dysbiosis participates in the development of hypertension remains largely unknown. To investigate this issue, we carried out comprehensive metagenomic and metabolomic analyses in a cohort of 41 healthy controls, 56 subjects with pre-hypertension, 99 individuals with primary hypertension, and performed fecal microbiota transplantation from patients to germ-free mice. RESULTS Compared to the healthy controls, we found dramatically decreased microbial richness and diversity, Prevotella-dominated gut enterotype, distinct metagenomic composition with reduced bacteria associated with healthy status and overgrowth of bacteria such as Prevotella and Klebsiella, and disease-linked microbial function in both pre-hypertensive and hypertensive populations. Unexpectedly, the microbiome characteristic in pre-hypertension group was quite similar to that in hypertension. The metabolism changes of host with pre-hypertension or hypertension were identified to be closely linked to gut microbiome dysbiosis. And a disease classifier based on microbiota and metabolites was constructed to discriminate pre-hypertensive and hypertensive individuals from controls accurately. Furthermore, by fecal transplantation from hypertensive human donors to germ-free mice, elevated blood pressure was observed to be transferrable through microbiota, and the direct influence of gut microbiota on blood pressure of the host was demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our results describe a novel causal role of aberrant gut microbiota in contributing to the pathogenesis of hypertension. And the significance of early intervention for pre-hypertension was emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- Hypertension Center, Fuwai Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of China, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases of China, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100037 China
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing ChaoYang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020 China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Beijing, 100020 China
| | - Fangqing Zhao
- Computational Genomics Laboratory, Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Yidan Wang
- Hypertension Center, Fuwai Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of China, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases of China, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100037 China
| | - Junru Chen
- Novogene Bioinformatics Institute, Beijing, 100000 China
| | - Jie Tao
- Department of Cardiology, Baoding NO.1 Central Hospital, Baoding, 071000 China
| | - Gang Tian
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710061 China
| | - Shouling Wu
- Department of Cardiology Kailuan General Hospital, Hebei Union University, Tangshan, 063000 China
| | - Wenbin Liu
- Novogene Bioinformatics Institute, Beijing, 100000 China
| | - Qinghua Cui
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Centre for Noncoding RNA Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100191 China
| | - Bin Geng
- Hypertension Center, Fuwai Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of China, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases of China, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100037 China
| | - Weili Zhang
- Hypertension Center, Fuwai Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of China, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases of China, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100037 China
| | - Ryan Weldon
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204 USA
| | - Kelda Auguste
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204 USA
| | - Lei Yang
- Medical Research Center, Beijing ChaoYang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020 China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Medical Research Center, Beijing ChaoYang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020 China
| | - Li Chen
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204 USA
- Department of Stem Cell Engineering, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX 77030 USA
- Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030 China
| | - Xinchun Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing ChaoYang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020 China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Beijing, 100020 China
| | - Baoli Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310003 China
| | - Jun Cai
- Hypertension Center, Fuwai Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of China, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases of China, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100037 China
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Santisteban MM, Kim S, Pepine CJ, Raizada MK. Brain-Gut-Bone Marrow Axis: Implications for Hypertension and Related Therapeutics. Circ Res 2016; 118:1327-36. [PMID: 27081113 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.116.307709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hypertension is the most prevalent modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease and disorders directly influencing cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality, such as diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, obstructive sleep apnea, etc. Despite aggressive attempts to influence lifestyle modifications and advances in pharmacotherapeutics, a large percentage of patients still do not achieve recommended blood pressure control worldwide. Thus, we think that mechanism-based novel strategies should be considered to significantly improve control and management of hypertension. The overall objective of this review is to summarize implications of peripheral- and neuroinflammation as well as the autonomic nervous system-bone marrow communication in hematopoietic cell homeostasis and their impact on hypertension pathophysiology. In addition, we discuss the novel and emerging field of intestinal microbiota and roles of gut permeability and dysbiosis in cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Finally, we propose a brain-gut-bone marrow triangular interaction hypothesis and discuss its potential in the development of novel therapies for hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica M Santisteban
- From the Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics (M.M.S., S.K., M.K.R.) and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine (C.J.P.), College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville
| | - Seungbum Kim
- From the Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics (M.M.S., S.K., M.K.R.) and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine (C.J.P.), College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville
| | - Carl J Pepine
- From the Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics (M.M.S., S.K., M.K.R.) and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine (C.J.P.), College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville
| | - Mohan K Raizada
- From the Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics (M.M.S., S.K., M.K.R.) and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine (C.J.P.), College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville.
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Abstract
Gut microbiota is an assortment of microorganisms inhabiting the length and width of the mammalian gastrointestinal tract. The composition of this microbial community is host specific, evolving throughout an individual's lifetime and susceptible to both exogenous and endogenous modifications. Recent renewed interest in the structure and function of this “organ” has illuminated its central position in health and disease. The microbiota is intimately involved in numerous aspects of normal host physiology, from nutritional status to behavior and stress response. Additionally, they can be a central or a contributing cause of many diseases, affecting both near and far organ systems. The overall balance in the composition of the gut microbial community, as well as the presence or absence of key species capable of effecting specific responses, is important in ensuring homeostasis or lack thereof at the intestinal mucosa and beyond. The mechanisms through which microbiota exerts its beneficial or detrimental influences remain largely undefined, but include elaboration of signaling molecules and recognition of bacterial epitopes by both intestinal epithelial and mucosal immune cells. The advances in modeling and analysis of gut microbiota will further our knowledge of their role in health and disease, allowing customization of existing and future therapeutic and prophylactic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna Sekirov
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Shannon L. Russell
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - L. Caetano M. Antunes
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - B. Brett Finlay
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Smith K, McCoy KD, Macpherson AJ. Use of axenic animals in studying the adaptation of mammals to their commensal intestinal microbiota. Semin Immunol 2006; 19:59-69. [PMID: 17118672 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2006.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 523] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2006] [Accepted: 10/26/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrates are essentially born germ-free but normally acquire a complex intestinal microbiota soon after birth. Most of these organisms are non-pathogenic to immunocompetent hosts; in fact, many are beneficial, supplying vitamins for host nutrition and filling the available microbiological niche to limit access and consequent pathology when pathogens are encountered. Thus, mammalian health depends on mutualism between host and flora. This is evident in inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, where aberrant responses to microbiota can result in host pathology. Studies with axenic (germ-free) or deliberately colonised animals have revealed that commensal organisms are required for the development of a fully functional immune system and affect many physiological processes within the host. Here, we describe the technical requirements for raising and maintaining axenic and gnotobiotic animals, and highlight the extreme diversity of changes within and beyond the immune system that occur when a germ-free animal is colonized with commensal bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Smith
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Pesti L, Kokas E, Gordon HA. Effects of Clostridium difficile, Lactobacillus casei, Bacillus subtilis and Lactobacillus sp. on anomalous lower bowel function on germfree mice. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 1981; 4:87-92. [PMID: 6793297 DOI: 10.1016/0147-9571(81)90032-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Levenson SM. The influence of the indigenous microflora on mammalian metabolism and nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1978; 2:78-107. [PMID: 575910 DOI: 10.1177/014860717800200203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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15
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The gnotobiotic animal as a tool in the study of host microbial relationships. BACTERIOLOGICAL REVIEWS 1971; 35:390-429. [PMID: 4945725 PMCID: PMC378408 DOI: 10.1128/br.35.4.390-429.1971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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