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Pitters J, Croshaw J, Achal R, Livadaru L, Ng S, Lupoiu R, Chutora T, Huff T, Walus K, Wolkow RA. Atomically Precise Manufacturing of Silicon Electronics. ACS NANO 2024; 18:6766-6816. [PMID: 38376086 PMCID: PMC10919096 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c10412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Atomically precise manufacturing (APM) is a key technique that involves the direct control of atoms in order to manufacture products or components of products. It has been developed most successfully using scanning probe methods and has received particular attention for developing atom scale electronics with a focus on silicon-based systems. This review captures the development of silicon atom-based electronics and is divided into several sections that will cover characterization and atom manipulation of silicon surfaces with scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy, development of silicon dangling bonds as atomic quantum dots, creation of atom scale devices, and the wiring and packaging of those circuits. The review will also cover the advance of silicon dangling bond logic design and the progress of silicon quantum atomic designer (SiQAD) simulators. Finally, an outlook of APM and silicon atom electronics will be provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Pitters
- Nanotechnology
Research Centre, National Research Council
of Canada, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Jeremiah Croshaw
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - Roshan Achal
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum
Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Lucian Livadaru
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum
Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Samuel Ng
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Robert Lupoiu
- School
of Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Taras Chutora
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - Taleana Huff
- Canadian
Bank Note Company, Ottawa, Ontario K1Z 1A1, Canada
| | - Konrad Walus
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Robert A. Wolkow
- Department
of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
- Quantum
Silicon Inc., Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2M9, Canada
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Croshaw J, Dienel T, Huff T, Wolkow R. Atomic defect classification of the H-Si(100) surface through multi-mode scanning probe microscopy. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 11:1346-1360. [PMID: 32974113 PMCID: PMC7492692 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.11.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The combination of scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) and non-contact atomic force microscopy (nc-AFM) allows enhanced extraction and correlation of properties not readily available via a single imaging mode. We demonstrate this through the characterization and classification of several commonly found defects of the hydrogen-terminated silicon (100)-2 × 1 surface (H-Si(100)-2 × 1) by using six unique imaging modes. The H-Si surface was chosen as it provides a promising platform for the development of atom scale devices, with recent work showing their creation through precise desorption or placement of surface hydrogen atoms. While samples with relatively large areas of the H-Si surface are routinely created using an in situ methodology, surface defects are inevitably formed reducing the area available for patterning. By probing the surface using the different interactivity afforded by either hydrogen- or silicon-terminated tips, we are able to extract new insights regarding the atomic and electronic structure of these defects. This allows for the confirmation of literature assignments of several commonly found defects, as well as proposed classifications of previously unreported and unassigned defects. By combining insights from multiple imaging modes, better understanding of their successes and shortcomings in identifying defect structures and origins is achieved. With this, we take the first steps toward enabling the creation of superior H-Si surfaces through an improved understanding of surface defects, ultimately leading to more consistent and reliable fabrication of atom scale devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremiah Croshaw
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Thomas Dienel
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, USA
| | - Taleana Huff
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Robert Wolkow
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2J1, Canada
- Quantum Silicon, Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2M9, Canada
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Sweetman A, Goubet N, Lekkas I, Pileni MP, Moriarty P. Nano-contact microscopy of supracrystals. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 6:1229-36. [PMID: 26114081 PMCID: PMC4462851 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.6.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Highly ordered three-dimensional colloidal crystals (supracrystals) comprised of 7.4 nm diameter Au nanocrystals (with a 5% size dispersion) have been imaged and analysed using a combination of scanning tunnelling microscopy and dynamic force microscopy. RESULTS By exploring the evolution of both the force and tunnel current with respect to tip-sample separation, we arrive at the surprising finding that single nanocrystal resolution is readily obtained in tunnelling microscopy images acquired more than 1 nm into the repulsive (i.e., positive force) regime of the probe-nanocrystal interaction potential. Constant height force microscopy has been used to map tip-sample interactions in this regime, revealing inhomogeneities which arise from the convolution of the tip structure with the ligand distribution at the nanocrystal surface. CONCLUSION Our combined STM-AFM measurements show that the contrast mechanism underpinning high resolution imaging of nanoparticle supracrystals involves a form of nanoscale contact imaging, rather than the through-vacuum tunnelling which underpins traditional tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Sweetman
- The School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, U.K
| | - Nicolas Goubet
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 8233, Monaris, F-75005, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR 8233, Monaris, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Ioannis Lekkas
- The School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, U.K
| | - Marie Paule Pileni
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 8233, Monaris, F-75005, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR 8233, Monaris, F-75005, Paris, France
- CEA/IRAMIS, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Philip Moriarty
- The School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, U.K
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Suzuki S. Development of a Novel Surface Elemental Analysis Methodology: X-ray-Aided Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy (XANAM). BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2015. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20140286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shushi Suzuki
- Department of Crystalline Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University
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Jarvis SP, Sweetman AM, Lekkas I, Champness NR, Kantorovich L, Moriarty P. Simulated structure and imaging of NTCDI on Si(1 1 1)-7 × 7 : a combined STM, NC-AFM and DFT study. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2015; 27:054004. [PMID: 25414147 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/27/5/054004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The adsorption of naphthalene tetracarboxylic diimide (NTCDI) on Si(1 1 1)-7 × 7 is investigated through a combination of scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), noncontact atomic force microscopy (NC-AFM) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. We show that NTCDI adopts multiple planar adsorption geometries on the Si(1 1 1)-7 × 7 surface which can be imaged with intramolecular bond resolution using NC-AFM. DFT calculations reveal adsorption is dominated by covalent bond formation between the molecular oxygen atoms and the surface silicon adatoms. The chemisorption of the molecule is found to induce subtle distortions to the molecular structure, which are observed in NC-AFM images.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Jarvis
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
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Bamidele J, Lee S, Kinoshita Y, Turanský R, Naitoh Y, Li Y, Sugawara Y, Štich I, Kantorovich L. Vertical atomic manipulation with dynamic atomic-force microscopy without tip change via a multi-step mechanism. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4476. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
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Jarvis SP, Kantorovich L, Moriarty P. Structural development and energy dissipation in simulated silicon apices. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2013; 4:941-8. [PMID: 24455452 PMCID: PMC3896295 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.4.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we examine the stability of silicon tip apices by using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. We find that some tip structures - modelled as small, simple clusters - show variations in stability during manipulation dependent on their orientation with respect to the sample surface. Moreover, we observe that unstable structures can be revealed by a characteristic hysteretic behaviour present in the F(z) curves that were calculated with DFT, which corresponds to a tip-induced dissipation of hundreds of millielectronvolts resulting from reversible structural deformations. Additionally, in order to model the structural evolution of the tip apex within a low temperature NC-AFM experiment, we simulated a repeated tip-surface indentation until the tip structure converged to a stable termination and the characteristic hysteretic behaviour was no longer observed. Our calculations suggest that varying just a single rotational degree of freedom can have as measurable an impact on the tip-surface interaction as a completely different tip structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Paul Jarvis
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Lev Kantorovich
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, The Strand, London WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Moriarty
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
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