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Gonzalez-Montoro A, Pourashraf S, Lee MS, Cates JW, Levin CS. Study of optical reflectors for a 100ps coincidence time resolution TOF-PET detector design. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2021; 7:10.1088/2057-1976/ac240e. [PMID: 34488203 PMCID: PMC8548986 DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/ac240e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) reconstructed image signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be improved by including the 511 keV photon pair coincidence time-of-flight (TOF) information. The degree of SNR improvement from this TOF capability depends on the coincidence time resolution (CTR) of the PET system, which is essentially the variation in photon arrival time differences over all coincident photon pairs detected for a point positron source placed at the system center. The CTR is determined by several factors including the intrinsic properties of the scintillation crystals and photodetectors, crystal-to-photodetector coupling configurations, reflective materials, and the electronic readout configuration scheme. The goal of the present work is to build a novel TOF-PET system with 100 picoseconds (ps) CTR, which provides an additional factor of 1.5-2.0 improvement in reconstructed image SNR compared to state-of-the-art TOF-PET systems which achieve 225-400 ps CTR. A critical parameter to understand is the optical reflector's influence on scintillation light collection and transit time variations to the photodetector. To study the effects of the reflector covering the scintillation crystal element on CTR, we have tested the performance of four different reflector materials: Enhanced Specular Reflector (ESR) -coupled with air or optical grease to the scintillator; Teflon tape; BaSO4paint alone or mixed with epoxy; and TiO2paint. For the experimental set-up, we made use of 3 × 3 × 10 mm3fast-LGSO:Ce scintillation crystal elements coupled to an array of silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) using a novel 'side-readout' configuration that has proven to have lower variations in scintillation light collection efficiency and transit time to the photodetector.Results: show CTR values of 102.0 ± 0.8, 100.2 ± 1.2, 97.3 ± 1.8 and 95.0 ± 1.0 ps full-width-half-maximum (FWHM) with non-calibrated energy resolutions of 10.2 ± 1.8, 9.9 ± 1.2, 7.9 ± 1.2, and 8.6 ± 1.7% FWHM for the Teflon, ESR (without grease), BaSO4(without epoxy) and TiO2paint treatments, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gonzalez-Montoro
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, School of Medicine, Stanford University, California, United States of America
| | - Shirin Pourashraf
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, School of Medicine, Stanford University, California, United States of America
| | - Min Sun Lee
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, School of Medicine, Stanford University, California, United States of America
- Nuclear Emergency & Environmental Protection Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Joshua W Cates
- Applied Nuclear Physics Program, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, California, United States of America
| | - Craig S Levin
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, School of Medicine, Stanford University, California, United States of America
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, California, United States of America
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, California, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, California, United States of America
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Gonzalez-Montoro A, Gonzalez AJ, Pourashraf S, Miyaoka RS, Bruyndonckx P, Chinn G, Pierce LA, Levin CS. Evolution of PET Detectors and Event Positioning Algorithms Using Monolithic Scintillation Crystals. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON RADIATION AND PLASMA MEDICAL SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1109/trpms.2021.3059181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Bläckberg L, Sajedi S, El Fakhri G, Sabet H. A layered single-side readout depth of interaction time-of-flight-PET detector. Phys Med Biol 2021; 66:045025. [PMID: 33570050 PMCID: PMC8130834 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/abd592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We are exploring a scintillator-based PET detector with potential of high sensitivity, depth of interaction (DOI) capability, and timing resolution, with single-side readout. Our design combines two previous concepts: (1) multiple scintillator arrays stacked with relative offset, yielding inherent DOI information, but good timing performance has not been demonstrated with conventional light sharing readout. (2) Single crystal array with one-to-one coupling to the photodetector, showing superior timing performance compared to its light sharing counterparts, but lacks DOI. The combination, where the first layer of a staggered design is coupled one-to-one to a photodetector array, may provide both DOI and timing resolution and this concept is here evaluated through light transport simulations. Results show that: (1) unpolished crystal pixels in the staggered configuration yield better performance across all metrics compared to polished pixels, regardless of readout scheme. (2) One-to-one readout of the first layer allows for accurate DOI extraction using a single threshold. The number of multi pixel photon counter (MPPC) pixels with signal amplitudes exceeding the threshold corresponds to the interaction layer. This approach was not possible with conventional light sharing readout. (3) With a threshold of 2 optical photons, the layered approach with one-to-one coupled first layer improves timing close to the MPPC compared to the conventional one-to-one coupling non-DOI detector, due to effectively reduced crystal thickness. Single detector timing resolution values of 91, 127, 151 and 164 ps were observed per layer in the 4-layer design, to be compared to 148 ps for the single array with one-to-one coupling. (4) For the layered design with light sharing readout, timing improves with increased MPPC pixel size due to higher signal per channel. In conclusion, the combination of straightforward DOI determination, good timing performance, and relatively simple design makes the proposed concept promising for DOI-Time-of-Flight PET detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Bläckberg
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - S Sajedi
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - G El Fakhri
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - H Sabet
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
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Mohammadi I, Castro IFC, Correia PMM, Silva ALM, Veloso JFCA. Minimization of parallax error in positron emission tomography using depth of interaction capable detectors: methods and apparatus. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2019. [DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/ab4a1b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Bläckberg L, Sajedi S, Mandl S, Mohan A, Vittum B, El Fakhri G, Sabet H. Exploring light confinement in laser-processed LYSO:Ce for photon counting CT application. Phys Med Biol 2019; 64:095020. [PMID: 30897557 PMCID: PMC7191943 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/ab1213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
With the goal of developing a low-cost scintillator-based photon counting detector (PCD) with high dose efficiency suitable for CT, the light transport characteristics in LYSO:Ce detectors containing laser induced optical barriers (LIOB) are simulated. Light confinement and light collection efficiencies (LCE) are studied for a variety of optical barrier patterns and properties (refractive index (RI) and barrier/crystal interface roughness). Up to 80% confinement is achievable with a simple pixel pattern with one barrier wall separating each pixel coupled one-to-one to a photodetector (PD) pixel. Confinement is heavily dependent on barrier properties, and rough interfaces and higher RI results in increased cross-talk. Three approaches to enhance performance beyond the basic pattern are explored: (1) Multiple barrier walls separating each crystal pixel. (2) Introduction of long and short range confinement by having multiple crystal pixels per PD pixel. (3) Combination of LIOB and laser ablation (LA). (1) Is effective for rough interfaces where confinement can be increased by up to 24% for double compared to single walls. (2) Results in high confinement in the pixel centered on the PD pixel, but lower confinement closer to the PD edge. This feature may be explored to achieve spatial resolution beyond the PD pixel size using light sharing based positioning algorithms. (3) Can increase confinement for smooth interfaces using a smooth ablation in the bottom part of the crystal. A general trend across all configurations is a trade-off between light confinement and LCE. The LCE attainable is found comparable to that for mechanically pixelated arrays. While the confinement achievable with LIOB is always lower compared to a mechanically pixelated array, the former may offer a high level of flexibility in terms of detector design. This, in combination with the possibility to fabricate sub-mm pixels in a cost-effective manner, makes LIOB a promising technology for scintillator-based PCDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Bläckberg
- Department of Radiology, Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
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Xie S, Sun Q, Ying G, Guo L, Huang Q, Peng Q, Xu J. Ultra-precise surface processing of LYSO scintillator crystals for Positron Emission Tomography. APPLIED SURFACE SCIENCE 2019; 469:573-581. [PMID: 33311823 PMCID: PMC7729835 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Lutetium-Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) is one of the most widely used scintillation crystal in the high-performance Positron Emission Tomography (PET) systems. The quality of the surface finish of the LYSO has an important impact on the light output, the decoding performance, the energy resolution and timing resolution of the PET detectors and systems. In this paper, we present an ultra-precise method for processing the surface of LYSO crystals. The hardness and elastic modulus of the crystals were initially measured using Nano indentation technology. The scintillators were fixed onto the plate in sparse, serried and continuous arrangements and polished using an alumina (Al2O3) and cerium oxide (CeO2) polishing solution with particles of varying size. We used a magnetorheological-polishing technique to polish the LYSO crystals. The polishing solution here included hydroxyl iron powder and hard abrasives. The hardness and elastic modulus of the crystals in question was, respectively, 11.18 ± 0.50 and 155.78 ± 4gigapascals (GPa). A 3D optical surface profiler (3D-OPS) and an atomic force microscope (AFM) were used to evaluate the quality of the polished surfaces. The average roughness of Ra 0.55 nm measured by 3D-OPS was achieved using a precise plate grinding and polishing technique. The magnetorheological-polishing method also obtained an excellent roughness of Ra 0.75 nm (3D-OPS). Our report of the use of these processing technologies can serve as a foundation for further in-depth research regarding the optimal techniques for scintillator surface processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siwei Xie
- The State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | | | - Gaoyang Ying
- The State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | | | - Qiu Huang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Qiyu Peng
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Jianfeng Xu
- The State Key Lab of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
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Bläckberg L, Moebius M, Fakhri GE, Mazur E, Sabet H. Light Spread Manipulation in Scintillators Using Laser Induced Optical Barriers. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE 2018; 65:2208-2215. [PMID: 30905974 PMCID: PMC6424510 DOI: 10.1109/tns.2018.2809570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We are using the Laser Induced Optical Barriers (LIOB) technique to fabricate scintillator detectors with combined performance characteristics of the two standard detector types, mechanically pixelated arrays and monolithic crystals. This is done by incorporation of so-called optical barriers that have a refractive index lower than that of the crystal bulk. Such barriers can redirect the scintillation light and allow for control of the light spread in the detector. Previous work has shown that the LIOB technique has the potential to achieve detectors with high transversal and depth of interaction (DOI) resolution simultaneously in a single-side readout configuration, suitable for high resolution PET imaging. However, all designs studied thus far present edge effect issues similarly as in the standard detector categories. In this work we take advantage of the inherent flexibility of the LIOB technique and investigate alternative barrier patterns with the aim to address this problem. Light transport simulations of barrier patterns in LYSO:Ce, with deeper barrier walls moving towards the detector edge show great promise in reducing the edge effect, however there is a trade-off in terms of achievable DOI information. Furthermore, fabrication and characterization of a 20 mm thick LYSO:Ce detector with optical barriers forming a pattern of 1 × 1 × 20mm3 pixel like structures show that light channeling in laser-processed detectors in agreement with optical barriers with refractive index between 1.2 and 1.4 is achievable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Bläckberg
- Dept. of Radiolgy at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA, and Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Michael Moebius
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University. He is now with The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory
| | - Georges El Fakhri
- Dept. of Radiology at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Eric Mazur
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University
| | - Hamid Sabet
- Dept. of Radiology at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.
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Abstract
PET scanners are sophisticated and highly sensitive biomedical imaging devices that can produce highly quantitative images showing the 3-dimensional distribution of radiotracers inside the body. PET scanners are commonly integrated with x-ray CT or MRI scanners in hybrid devices that can provide both molecular imaging (PET) and anatomical imaging (CT or MRI). Despite decades of development, significant opportunities still exist to make major improvements in the performance of PET systems for a variety of clinical and research tasks. These opportunities stem from new ideas and concepts, as well as a range of enabling technologies and methodologies. In this paper, we review current state of the art in PET instrumentation, detectors and systems, describe the major limitations in PET as currently practiced, and offer our own personal insights into some of the recent and emerging technological innovations that we believe will impact the field. Our focus is on the technical aspects of PET imaging, specifically detectors and system design, and the opportunity and necessity to move closer to PET systems for diagnostic patient use and in vivo biomedical research that truly approach the physical performance limits while remaining mindful of imaging time, radiation dose, and cost. However, other key endeavors, which are not covered here, including innovations in reconstruction and modeling methodology, radiotracer development, and expanding the range of clinical and research applications, also will play an equally important, if not more important, role in defining the future of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Berg
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Simon R Cherry
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA.; Department of Radiology, University of California, Davis, CA.
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