Structure, integrity, and function of the hypoplastic corpus callosum in spina bifida myelomeningocele

Memory in Spina Bifida, from Childhood to Adulthood: A Systematic Review

Background: Spina bifida (SB) is a rare congenital disease characterized by not only physical but also neuropsychological disturbances. Among these neuropsychological impairments, memory deficits are a significant concern, as they substantially hinder aspects of crucial importance in the lives of individuals with SB such as medical needs or daily life activities. The main objective is to conduct a systematic review of the current evidence on the memory deficits in the SB population, including children, adolescents, and adults. Methods: Four databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and ProQuest) were systematically screened for eligible studies. Results: The present review reveals cognitive difficulties in different memory types among individuals with SB. These deficits, identified in childhood, seem to persist into adulthood. Specifically, impairments are evident in short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. The neuropsychological instruments applied in the studies that were included in this systematic review vary, however, most reach the same conclusions. Conclusions: The present findings underscore the importance of incorporating cognitive assessments, particularly those focused on the memory domain, into routine childhood evaluations for individuals with SB. Early identification of these cognitive difficulties allows for the timely implementation of cognitive interventions that could leverage the inherent plasticity of the developing brain, and prevent or delay the onset of these deficits in later adulthood for people with SB, ultimately improving their functionality and quality of life.

A spatio-temporal atlas of the developing fetal brain with spina bifida aperta

Background: Spina bifida aperta (SBA) is a birth defect associated with severe anatomical changes in the developing fetal brain. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) atlases are popular tools for studying neuropathology in the brain anatomy, but previous fetal brain MRI atlases have focused on the normal fetal brain. We aimed to develop a spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA. Methods: We developed a semi-automatic computational method to compute the first spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA. We used 90 MRIs of fetuses with SBA with gestational ages ranging from 21 to 35 weeks. Isotropic and motion-free 3D reconstructed MRIs were obtained for all the examinations. We propose a protocol for the annotation of anatomical landmarks in brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA with the aim of making spatial alignment of abnormal fetal brain MRIs more robust. In addition, we propose a weighted generalized Procrustes method based on the anatomical landmarks for the initialization of the atlas. The proposed weighted generalized Procrustes can handle temporal regularization and missing annotations. After initialization, the atlas is refined iteratively using non-linear image registration based on the image intensity and the anatomical land-marks. A semi-automatic method is used to obtain a parcellation of our fetal brain atlas into eight tissue types: white matter, ventricular system, cerebellum, extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid, cortical gray matter, deep gray matter, brainstem, and corpus callosum. Results: An intra-rater variability analysis suggests that the seven anatomical land-marks are sufficiently reliable. We find that the proposed atlas outperforms a normal fetal brain atlas for the automatic segmentation of brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA. Conclusions: We make publicly available a spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA, available here:  https://doi.org/10.7303/syn25887675. This atlas can support future research on automatic segmentation methods for brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA.

A spatio-temporal atlas of the developing fetal brain with spina bifida aperta

Background: Spina bifida aperta (SBA) is a birth defect associated with severe anatomical changes in the developing fetal brain. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) atlases are popular tools for studying neuropathology in the brain anatomy, but previous fetal brain MRI atlases have focused on the normal fetal brain. We aimed to develop a spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA. Methods: We developed a semi-automatic computational method to compute the first spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA. We used 90 MRIs of fetuses with SBA with gestational ages ranging from 21 to 35 weeks. Isotropic and motion-free 3D reconstructed MRIs were obtained for all the examinations. We propose a protocol for the annotation of anatomical landmarks in brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA with the aim of making spatial alignment of abnormal fetal brain MRIs more robust. In addition, we propose a weighted generalized Procrustes method based on the anatomical landmarks for the initialization of the atlas. The proposed weighted generalized Procrustes can handle temporal regularization and missing annotations. After initialization, the atlas is refined iteratively using non-linear image registration based on the image intensity and the anatomical land-marks. A semi-automatic method is used to obtain a parcellation of our fetal brain atlas into eight tissue types: white matter, ventricular system, cerebellum, extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid, cortical gray matter, deep gray matter, brainstem, and corpus callosum. Results: An intra-rater variability analysis suggests that the seven anatomical land-marks are sufficiently reliable. We find that the proposed atlas outperforms a normal fetal brain atlas for the automatic segmentation of brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA. Conclusions: We make publicly available a spatio-temporal fetal brain MRI atlas for SBA, available here:  https://doi.org/10.7303/syn25887675. This atlas can support future research on automatic segmentation methods for brain 3D MRI of fetuses with SBA.

Prevalence of supratentorial anomalies assessed by magnetic resonance imaging in fetuses with open spina bifida

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of brain anomalies at the time of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) assessment in fetuses eligible for prenatal open spina bifida (OSB) repair, and to explore the relationship between brain abnormalities and features of the spinal defect.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cross-sectional study, conducted in three fetal medicine centers, of fetuses eligible for OSB fetal surgery repair between January 2009 and December 2019. MRI images obtained as part of the presurgical assessment were re-evaluated by two independent observers, blinded to perinatal results, to assess: (1) the type and area of the defect and its anatomical level; (2) the presence of any structural central nervous system (CNS) anomaly and abnormal ventricular wall; and (3) fetal head and brain biometry. Binary regression analyses were performed and data were adjusted for type of defect, upper level of the lesion (ULL), gestational age (GA) at MRI and fetal medicine center. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed in order to identify lesion characteristics and brain anomalies associated with a higher risk of presence of abnormal corpus callosum (CC) and/or heterotopia.

RESULTS

Of 115 fetuses included, 91 had myelomeningocele and 24 had myeloschisis. Anatomical level of the lesion was thoracic in seven fetuses, L1-L2 in 13, L3-L5 in 68 and sacral in 27. Median GA at MRI was 24.7 (interquartile range, 23.0-25.7) weeks. Overall, 52.7% of cases had at least one additional brain anomaly. Specifically, abnormal CC was observed in 50.4% of cases and abnormality of the ventricular wall in 19.1%, of which 4.3% had nodular heterotopia. Factors associated independently with higher risk of abnormal CC and/or heterotopia were non-sacral ULL (odds ratio (OR), 0.51 (95% CI, 0.26-0.97); P = 0.043), larger ventricular width (per mm) (OR, 1.23 (95% CI, 1.07-1.43); P = 0.005) and presence of abnormal cavum septi pellucidi (OR, 3.76 (95% CI, 1.13-12.48); P = 0.031).

CONCLUSIONS

Half of the fetuses assessed for OSB repair had an abnormal CC and/or an abnormal ventricular wall prior to prenatal repair. The likelihood of brain abnormalities was increased in cases with a non-sacral lesion and wider lateral ventricles. These findings highlight the importance of a detailed preoperative CNS evaluation of fetuses with OSB. © 2021 The Authors. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Incidence and patterns of abnormal corpus callosum in fetuses with isolated spina bifida aperta

OBJECTIVE

To determine the incidence and characterise corpus callosum (CC) abnormalities in fetuses with spina bifida aperta (SBA) between 18 and 26 weeks of gestation.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study on fetuses with isolated SBA and who were assessed for fetal surgery. Digitally stored ultrasound images of the brain were reviewed for the presence/absence of the CC, and the length and diameter of its constituent parts (rostrum, genu, body and splenium). We used regression analysis to determine the relationship between CC abnormalities and gestational age, head circumference, ventricle size, lesion level and lesion type.

RESULTS

Nearly three-quarters of fetuses with isolated SBA had an abnormal CC (71.7%, 76/106). Partial agenesis was most common in the splenium (18.9%, 20/106) and the rostrum (13.2%, 14/106). The most common abnormal pattern was of a short CC with normal diameter throughout. Of note, 20.8% (22/106) had a hypoplastic genu and 28.3% (30/106) had a thick body part. Larger lateral ventricle size was associated with partial agenesis of the CC (odds ratio [OR]: 0.14, p < 0.001) and inversely associated with a shorter CC (OR: 2.60, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

An abnormal CC is common in fetuses with isolated SBA who are referred for fetal surgery.

Cranial findings detected by second-trimester ultrasound in fetuses with myelomeningocele: a systematic review

Background

Abnormal intracranial findings are often detected at mid‐trimester ultrasound (US) in fetuses with myelomeningocele (MMC). It is unclear whether these findings constitute a spectrum of the disease or are an independent finding, which should contraindicate fetal surgery.

Objective

To ascertain the spectrum and frequency of US‐detected cranial findings in fetuses with MMC.

Search strategy

MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science and CENTRAL were searched from January 2000 to June 2020.

Selection criteria

Study reporting incidence of cranial US findings in consecutive cases of second‐trimester fetuses with MMC.

Data collection and analysis

Publication quality was assessed by Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) and modified NOS. Meta‐analysis could not be performed as a result of high clinical diversity and study heterogeneity.

Main results

Fourteen cranial US findings were reported in 15 studies. Findings in classic Chiari II malformation (CIIM) spectrum included posterior fossa funnelling (96%), small transcerebellar diameter (82–96%), ‘banana’ sign (50–100%), beaked tectum (65%) and ‘lemon’ sign (53–100%). Additional cranial findings were small biparietal diameter (BPD) and head circumference (HC) (<5th centile; 53 and 71%, respectively), ventriculomegaly (45–89%), abnormal pointed shape of the occipital horn (77–78%), thinning of the posterior cerebrum, perinodular heterotopia (11%), abnormal gyration (3%), corpus callosum disorders (60%) and midline interhemispheric cyst (42%).

Conclusions

We identified 14 cranial findings by second‐trimester US in fetuses with MMC. The relatively high incidence of these findings and their unclear prognostic significance might not contraindicate fetal surgery in the case of normal fetal genetic testing. Some cranial findings may independently affect postnatal outcome, however. Long‐term detailed follow‐up is required to investigate this.

Tweetable abstract

A high rate of cranial abnormalities found on second‐trimester ultrasound in fetuses with myelomeningocele.

A high rate of cranial abnormalities found on second‐trimester ultrasound in fetuses with myelomeningocele.

Brain malformations and cognitive performance in spina bifida

AIM

To systematically characterize radiological features of patients with spina bifida, their relationship to cognitive function, and differences between spina bifida aperta (SBA) and spina bifida occulta (SBO).

METHOD

In a retrospective study of 265 patients (117 females, 148 males; median age at imaging 11y, range 1-47y; SBA n=206, SBO n=59), the radiological phenotype was assessed through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (SBA n=171, SBO n=59). In 126 patients (SBA n=116, SBO n=10) Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC) or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) were performed.

RESULTS

Patients with spina bifida show numerous brain malformations, always present for SBA but rarely for SBO. The most frequent brain malformations in SBA included abnormal corpus callosum (69%), hypoplastic pons (50%), and hypoplastic mesencephalon (20%). Cognitive total IQ scores were below average in 44% (KABC) to 49% (WISC-IV) of children with SBA, while almost all children with SBO scored at least average. Stenogyria (p=0.006), pons (p=0.003), and mesencephalon hypoplasia (p=0.01) correlated with lower total IQ score and verbal comprehension. Various brain malformations correlate significantly with several cognitive domains, while lesion level only correlates with processing speed.

INTERPRETATION

IQ scores were significantly lower in patients with SBA than in patients with SBO. Verbal competence, perceptual reasoning, and working memory were significantly impaired for SBA and correlated with stenogyria and abnormalities of the midbrain and corpus callosum.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

Brain malformations occur more frequently in spina bifida aperta (SBA) than in spina bifida occulta (SBO). Cognitive impairment is less frequent in SBO. Hydrocephalus, stenogyria, midbrain, and corpus callosum abnormalities are associated with lower cognitive function. Difference in prognosis in SBO versus SBA can alter prenatal counselling.

The impact of cerebral anomalies on cognitive outcome in patients with spina bifida: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Spina bifida is the most common congenital birth defect affecting the central nervous system. Given the frequent association of cerebral anomalies, spina bifida is not a single developmental abnormality of the central nervous system. Patients with spina bifida typically perform below average on cognitive tasks. It has been hypothesized that associated cerebral anomalies as well negatively affect cognition in spina bifida patients.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to review the impact of cerebral anomalies on cognitive outcome in patients with spina bifida.

METHODS

A systematic search of multiple databases, including Pubmed, Embase, Web of Science and The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, was performed. All relevant primary research articles were included. All included articles were methodologically evaluated using a critical appraisal checklist.

RESULTS

In total 27 articles were included in this systematic review. A significant impact of different cerebral anomalies on cognition was found. More specifically, hydrocephalus, Chiari malformation type II and anomalies of the corpus callosum, central executive network, default mode network, cortical thickness and gyrification, fornix, grey matter volume and total brain volume were found to have a significant impact on cognitive outcome. The presence of a CSF shunt was also negatively associated with cognition. The results on Chiari malformation type II decompression and CSF shunt complications are inconsistent.

CONCLUSION

Associated cerebral anomalies have a significant impact on cognitive outcome in patients with spina bifida. The interrelatedness of the different cerebral anomalies makes it difficult to distinguish their individual impact on cognition.

Brain abnormalities in myelomeningocele patients

BACKGROUND

Myelomeningocele (MMC) is often related to hydrocephalus and Chiari malformation (CM) type 2; however, other brain abnormalities have been reported in this population. In order to better understand and quantify other forebrain abnormalities, we analyzed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of MMC patients treated in utero or postnatal.

METHODS

Between January 2014 and March 2017, 59 MMC were treated in our hospital. Thirty-seven patients (32 postnatal and 5 intrautero repair) had brain MRI and were enrolled at the study. MRI was analyzed by two experienced neuroradiologists to identify the supra and infratentorial brain abnormalities.

RESULTS

A wide range of brain abnormalities was consistently identified in MMC patients. As expected, the most common were hydrocephalus (94.5%) and CM type II (89.1%). Of note, we found high incidence of corpus callosum abnormalities (86.4%), mostly represented by dysplasia (46%).

CONCLUSIONS

The data are consistent with the concept that brain abnormalities related to MMC can be both infratentorial and supratentorial, cortical, and subcortical. More studies are needed to correlate these forebrain abnormalities to long-term functional outcome and their prognostic value for these patients.

New insights in cerebral findings associated with fetal myelomeningocele: a retrospective cohort study in a single tertiary centre

OBJECTIVE

To investigate cerebral anomalies other than Chiari type 2 malformation in fetuses with myelomeningocele (MMC).

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study in a single tertiary centre.

SETTING

A review of associated cerebral anomalies in cases with prenatal diagnosis of myelomeningocele.

POPULATION

Seventy cases of fetal myelomeningocele.

METHODS

Ultrasound and MRI images were blindly reviewed. Postnatal imaging and results of the postmortem results were also reviewed. The association between cerebral anomalies and the following ultrasound findings was measured: level of the defect, ventriculomegaly, microcephaly and fetal talipes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

A microcephaly was observed in 32/70 cases (46%) and a ventriculomegaly was observed in 39/70 cases (56%). Other cerebral anomalies were diagnosed in 47/70 (67%).

RESULTS

Other cerebral anomalies were represented by 42/70 cases with abnormal CC (60%), 8/70 cases with perinodular heterotopia (PNH; 11%), 2/70 cases with abnormal gyration (3%). MRI performed only in fetal surgery cases confirmed the ulltrasound findings in all cases and provided additional findings in two cases (PNH). Risk ratios of fetal cerebral anomalies associated with MMC did not reach significance for microcephaly, ventriculomegaly, talipes or the level of the defect There was an overall good correlation between pre- and postnatal findings with a Kappa value of 0.79 [95% CI 0.57-1] and 82% agreement.

CONCLUSION

Fetal brain anomalies other than Chiari type 2 malformation are frequently observed in fetuses with myelomeningocele, predominantly represented by CC anomalies. Whether these associated cerebral anomalies have an impact on selecting cases eligible for fetal surgery needs further evaluation.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

Fetal cerebral anomalies other than Chiari type 2 malformation, microcephaly, and ventriculomegaly may be associated with MMC in up to 67% of the cases.

Plasticity of Interhemispheric Temporal Lobe White Matter Pathways Due to Early Disruption of Corpus Callosum Development in Spina Bifida

Spina bifida myelomeningocele (SBM) is commonly associated with anomalous development of the corpus callosum (CC) because of congenital partial hypogenesis and hydrocephalus-related hypoplasia. It represents a model disorder to examine the effects of early disruption of CC neurodevelopment and the plasticity of interhemispheric white matter connections. Diffusion tensor imaging was acquired on 76 individuals with SBM and 27 typically developing individuals, aged 8-36 years. Probabilistic tractography was used to isolate the interhemispheric connections between the posterior superior temporal lobes, which typically traverse the posterior third of the CC. Early disruption of CC development resulted in restructuring of interhemispheric connections through alternate commissures, particularly the anterior commissure (AC). These rerouted fibers were present in people with SBM and both CC hypoplasia and hypogenesis. In addition, microstructural integrity was reduced in the interhemispheric temporal tract in people with SBM, indexed by lower fractional anisotropy, axial diffusivity, and higher radial diffusivity. Interhemispheric temporal tract volume was positively correlated with total volume of the CC, such that more severe underdevelopment of the CC was associated with fewer connections between the posterior temporal lobes. Therefore, both the macrostructure and microstructure of this interhemispheric tract were reduced, presumably as a result of more extensive CC malformation. The current findings suggest that early disruption in CC development reroutes interhemispheric temporal fibers through both the AC and more anterior sections of the CC in support of persistent hypotheses that the AC may serve a compensatory function in atypical CC development.

Spina bifida

Spina bifida is a birth defect in which the vertebral column is open, often with spinal cord involvement. The most clinically significant subtype is myelomeningocele (open spina bifida), which is a condition characterized by failure of the lumbosacral spinal neural tube to close during embryonic development. The exposed neural tissue degenerates in utero, resulting in neurological deficit that varies with the level of the lesion. Occurring in approximately 1 per 1,000 births worldwide, myelomeningocele is one of the most common congenital malformations, but its cause is largely unknown. The genetic component is estimated at 60-70%, but few causative genes have been identified to date, despite much information from mouse models. Non-genetic maternal risk factors include reduced folate intake, anticonvulsant therapy, diabetes mellitus and obesity. Primary prevention by periconceptional supplementation with folic acid has been demonstrated in clinical trials, leading to food fortification programmes in many countries. Prenatal diagnosis is achieved by ultrasonography, enabling women to seek termination of pregnancy. Individuals who survive to birth have their lesions closed surgically, with subsequent management of associated defects, including the Chiari II brain malformation, hydrocephalus, and urological and orthopaedic sequelae. Fetal surgical repair of myelomeningocele has been associated with improved early neurological outcome compared with postnatal operation. Myelomeningocele affects quality of life during childhood, adolescence and adulthood, posing a challenge for individuals, families and society as a whole. For an illustrated summary of this Primer, visit: http://go.nature.com/fK9XNa.