Activity- and calcineurin-independent nuclear shuttling of NFATc1, but not NFATc3, in adult skeletal muscle fibers

Dietary Taurine Supplementation Improves the Meat Quality, Muscle Fiber Type, and Mitochondrial Function of Finishing Pigs

This study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with taurine (TAU) on the meat quality, muscle fiber type, and mitochondrial function of finishing pigs. The results demonstrated that TAU significantly increased the a* value while decreasing b*45 min, L*24 h, and drip loss24 h and drip loss48 h in the longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle. Dietary supplemented with TAU reduced the content of lactate and the glycolytic potential (GP) in the LD muscle. Dietary supplemented with TAU enhanced the oxidative fiber-related gene expression as well as increased succinic dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase activities while reducing lactate dehydrogenase activity. Furthermore, dietary supplementation with TAU increased the contents of mtDNA and ATP and mitochondrial function-related gene expression. Moreover, TAU enhanced the mRNA expressions of calcineurin (CaN) and nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1) and protein expressions of CNA and NFATc1. The results indicate that dietary TAU supplementation improves meat quality and mitochondrial biogenesis and function and promotes muscle fiber-type conversion from the glycolytic fiber to the oxidative fiber via the CaN/NFATc1 pathway.

Calcineurin in the heart: New horizons for an old friend

Calcineurin, also known as PP2B or PPP3, is a member of the PPP family of protein phosphatases that also includes PP1 and PP2A. Together these three phosphatases carryout the majority of dephosphorylation events in the heart. Calcineurin is distinct in that it is activated by the binding of calcium/calmodulin (Ca2+/CaM) and therefore acts as a node for integrating Ca2+ signals with changes in phosphorylation, two fundamental intracellular signaling cascades. In the heart, calcineurin is primarily thought of in the context of pathological cardiac remodeling, acting through the Nuclear Factor of Activated T-cell (NFAT) family of transcription factors. However, calcineurin activity is also essential for normal heart development and homeostasis in the adult heart. Furthermore, it is clear that NFAT-driven changes in transcription are not the only relevant processes initiated by calcineurin in the setting of pathological remodeling. There is a growing appreciation for the diversity of calcineurin substrates that can impact cardiac function as well as the diversity of mechanisms for targeting calcineurin to specific sub-cellular domains in cardiomyocytes and other cardiac cell types. Here, we will review the basics of calcineurin structure, regulation, and function in the context of cardiac biology. Particular attention will be given to: the development of improved tools to identify and validate new calcineurin substrates; recent studies identifying new calcineurin isoforms with unique properties and targeting mechanisms; and the role of calcineurin in cardiac development and regeneration.

Effect of dietary L-theanine supplementation on skeletal muscle fiber type transformation in vivo

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary L-theanine supplementation on skeletal muscle fiber type transition in mice. Our data indicated that dietary 0.15% L-theanine supplementation significantly increased the mRNA expression levels of muscle fiber type related genes (MyHC I, MyHC IIa, PGC-1α, Sirt1, Tnnt1, Tnnc1, Tnni1, MEF2C) and the protein expression levels of MyHC IIa, myoglobin, PGC-1α, Sirt1 and Troponin I-SS, but significantly decreased the mRNA and protein expression levels of MyHC IIb. Dietary 0.15% L-theanine supplementation significantly increased the activities of SDH and MDH and decreased the activity of LDH. Furthermore, immunofluorescence demonstrated that dietary 0.15% L-theanine supplementation significantly increased the percentage of type I fibers, and significantly decreased the percentage of type II fibers. In addition, we found that dietary 0.15% L-theanine supplementation increased the fatigue-resistant, antioxidant capacity, mitochondrial biogenesis, and function in skeletal muscle of mice. Furthermore, dietary 0.15% L-theanine supplementation significantly increased the mRNA levels of prox1, CaN and NFATc1, the protein levels of prox1, CNA and NFATc1 and the activity of CaN in GAS muscle when compared with the control group. These results indicated that dietary L-theanine supplementation promoted skeletal muscle fiber transition from type II-type I, which might be via activation of CaN and/or NFATc1 signaling pathway.

Amniotic membrane matrix effects on calcineurin-NFAT-related gene expressions of SHED treated with VEGF for endothelial differentiation

The nuclear factor of activated T-cell (NFAT) signaling pathway is involved in angiogenesis following initiation by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). A number of angiogenic genes have been associated with calcineurin in the NFAT pathway, forming a calcineurin-NFAT pathway. This study aims to investigate the involvement of four angiogenic genes within the calcineurin-NFAT pathway in the endothelial-like differentiation of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) cultured on a human amniotic membrane (HAM) induced by VEGF. SHED were induced with VEGF for 24 h, then cultured on the stromal side of HAM. The cells were then further induced with VEGF until days 1 and 14. To understand the role of calcineurin, its potent inhibitor, cyclosporin A (CsA), was added into the culture. Results from SEM and H&E analyses showed SHED grew on HAM surface. Gene expression study of Cox-2 showed a drastically reduced expression with CsA treatment indicating Cox-2 involvement in the calcineurin-NFAT pathway. Meanwhile, IL-8 was probably controlled by another pathway as it showed no CsA inhibition. In contrast, high expression of ICAM-1 and RCAN1.4 by VEGF and CsA implied that these genes were not controlled by the calcineurin-NFAT-dependent pathway. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest the involvement of Cox-2 in the calcineurin-NFAT-dependent pathway while RCAN1.4 was controlled by NFAT molecule in endothelial-like differentiation of SHED cultured on HAM with VEGF induction.

Calmodulin-Binding Proteins in Muscle: A Minireview on Nuclear Receptor Interacting Protein, Neurogranin, and Growth-Associated Protein 43

Calmodulin (CaM) is an important Ca²⁺-sensing protein with numerous downstream targets that are either CaM-dependant or CaM-regulated. In muscle, CaM-dependent proteins, which are critical regulators of dynamic Ca²⁺ handling and contractility, include calcineurin (CaN), CaM-dependant kinase II (CaMKII), ryanodine receptor (RyR), and dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR). CaM-regulated targets include genes associated with oxidative metabolism, muscle plasticity, and repair. Despite its importance in muscle, the regulation of CaM—particularly its availability to bind to and activate downstream targets—is an emerging area of research. In this minireview, we discuss recent studies revealing the importance of small IQ motif proteins that bind to CaM to either facilitate (nuclear receptor interacting protein; NRIP) its activation of downstream targets, or sequester (neurogranin, Ng; and growth-associated protein 43, GAP43) CaM away from their downstream targets. Specifically, we discuss recent studies that have begun uncovering the physiological roles of NRIP, Ng, and GAP43 in skeletal and cardiac muscle, thereby highlighting the importance of endogenously expressed CaM-binding proteins and their regulation of CaM in muscle.

Calcineurin-dependent dephosphorylation of the transcription factor CrzA at specific sites controls conidiation, stress tolerance, and virulence of Aspergillus fumigatus

Calcium signaling through calcineurin and its major transcription factor (TF), CrzA, is integral to hyphal growth, stress response and virulence of the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, the leading etiology of invasive aspergillosis. Dephosphorylation of CrzA by calcineurin activates the TF, but the specific phosphorylation sites and their roles in the activation/inactivation mechanism are unknown. Mass spectroscopic analysis identified 20 phosphorylation sites, the majority of which were specific to filamentous fungi and distributed throughout the CrzA protein, with particular concentration in a serine-rich region N-terminal to the conserved DNA-binding domain (DBD). Site-directed mutagenesis of phosphorylated residues revealed that CrzA activity during calcium stimulation can only be suppressed by a high degree of phosphorylation in multiple regions of the protein. Our findings further suggest that this regulation is not solely accomplished through control of CrzA nuclear import. Additionally, we demonstrate the importance of the CrzA phosphorylation state in regulating growth, conidiation, calcium and cell wall stress tolerance, and virulence. Finally, we identify two previously undescribed nuclear localization sequences in the DBD. These findings provide novel insight into the phosphoregulation of CrzA which may be exploited to selectively target A. fumigatus.

Stromal Interaction Molecule Deficiency in T Cells Promotes Spontaneous Follicular Helper T Cell Development and Causes Type 2 Immune Disorders

Appropriate T cell responses are controlled by strict balance between activatory and inhibitory pathways downstream of TCR. Although mice or humans with impaired TCR signaling develop autoimmunity, the precise molecular mechanisms linking reduced TCR signaling to autoimmunity are not fully understood. Engagement of TCR activates Ca²⁺ signaling mainly through store-operated Ca²⁺ entry activated by stromal interaction molecule (Stim) 1 and Stim2. Despite defective T cell activation, mice deficient in both Stim1 and Stim2 in T cells (conditional double knockout [cDKO]) developed lymphoproliferative disorders and skin inflammation with a concomitant increase in serum IgG1 and IgE levels. In cDKO mice, follicular helper T (Tfh) cells were dramatically increased in number, and they produced IL-4 spontaneously. These inflammatory symptoms were abolished by the deletion of IL-4 in cDKO mice. Tfh development and inflammatory symptoms in cDKO mice were abrogated by further deletion of NFAT2 in T cells. These findings suggest that Tfh cells spontaneously developed in the absence of Ca²⁺ signaling and caused unregulated type 2 responses.

Calcineurin signaling in the heart: The importance of time and place

The calcium-activated protein phosphatase, calcineurin, lies at the intersection of protein phosphorylation and calcium signaling cascades, where it provides an essential nodal point for coordination between these two fundamental modes of intracellular communication. In excitatory cells, such as neurons and cardiomyocytes, that experience rapid and frequent changes in cytoplasmic calcium, calcineurin protein levels are exceptionally high, suggesting that these cells require high levels of calcineurin activity. Yet, it is widely recognized that excessive activation of calcineurin in the heart contributes to pathological hypertrophic remodeling and the progression to failure. How does a calcium activated enzyme function in the calcium-rich environment of the continuously contracting heart without pathological consequences? This review will discuss the wide range of calcineurin substrates relevant to cardiovascular health and the mechanisms calcineurin uses to find and act on appropriate substrates in the appropriate location while potentially avoiding others. Fundamental differences in calcineurin signaling in neonatal verses adult cardiomyocytes will be addressed as well as the importance of maintaining heterogeneity in calcineurin activity across the myocardium. Finally, we will discuss how circadian oscillations in calcineurin activity may facilitate integration with other essential but conflicting processes, allowing a healthy heart to reap the benefits of calcineurin signaling while avoiding the detrimental consequences of sustained calcineurin activity that can culminate in heart failure.

Biological functions of casein kinase 1 isoforms and putative roles in tumorigenesis

Isoforms of the casein kinase 1 (CK1) family have been shown to phosphorylate key regulatory molecules involved in cell cycle, transcription and translation, the structure of the cytoskeleton, cell-cell adhesion and receptor-coupled signal transduction. They regulate key signaling pathways known to be critically involved in tumor progression. Recent results point to an altered expression or activity of different CK1 isoforms in tumor cells. This review summarizes the expression and biological function of CK1 family members in normal and malignant cells and the evidence obtained so far about their role in tumorigenesis.

Distinct activation properties of the nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) isoforms NFATc3 and NFATc4 in neurons

The Ca(2+)/calcineurin-dependent transcription factor NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells) is implicated in regulating dendritic and axonal development, synaptogenesis, and neuronal survival. Despite the increasing appreciation for the importance of NFAT-dependent transcription in the nervous system, the regulation and function of specific NFAT isoforms in neurons are poorly understood. Here, we compare the activation of NFATc3 and NFATc4 in hippocampal and dorsal root ganglion neurons following electrically evoked elevations of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)). We find that NFATc3 undergoes rapid dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation that are essentially complete within 20 min, although NFATc4 remains phosphorylated and localized to the cytosol, only exhibiting nuclear localization following prolonged (1-3 h) depolarization. Knocking down NFATc3, but not NFATc4, strongly diminished NFAT-mediated transcription induced by mild depolarization in neurons. By analyzing NFATc3/NFATc4 chimeras, we find that the region containing the serine-rich region-1 (SRR1) mildly affects initial NFAT translocation, although the region containing the serine-proline repeats is critical for determining the magnitude of NFAT activation and nuclear localization upon depolarization. Knockdown of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) significantly increased the depolarization-induced nuclear localization of NFATc4. In contrast, inhibition of p38 or mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinases had no significant effect on nuclear import of NFATc4. Thus, electrically evoked [Ca(2+)](i) elevation in neurons rapidly and strongly activates NFATc3, whereas activation of NFATc4 requires a coincident increase in [Ca(2+)](i) and suppression of GSK3β, with differences in the serine-proline-containing region giving rise to these distinct activation properties of NFATc3 and NFATc4.

Kinetics of nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of Foxo1 and Foxo3A in adult skeletal muscle fibers

In skeletal muscle, the transcription factors Foxo1 and Foxo3A control expression of proteins that mediate muscle atrophy, making the nuclear concentration and nuclear-cytoplasmic movements of Foxo1 and Foxo3A of therapeutic interest in conditions of muscle wasting. Here, we use Foxo-GFP fusion proteins adenovirally expressed in cultured adult mouse skeletal muscle fibers to characterize the time course of nuclear efflux of Foxo1-GFP in response to activation of the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)/phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway to determine the time course of nuclear influx of Foxo1-GFP during inhibition of this pathway and to show that Akt mediates the efflux of nuclear Foxo1-GFP induced by IGF-1. Localization of endogenous Foxo1 in muscle fibers, as determined via immunocytochemistry, is consistent with that of Foxo1-GFP. Inhibition of the nuclear export carrier chromosome region maintenance 1 by leptomycin B (LMB) traps Foxo1 in the nucleus and results in a relatively rapid rate of Foxo1 nuclear accumulation, consistent with a high rate of nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of Foxo1 under control conditions before LMB application, with near balance of unidirectional influx and efflux. Expressed Foxo3A-GFP shuttles ∼20-fold more slowly than Foxo1-GFP. Our approach allows quantitative kinetic characterization of Foxo1 and Foxo3A nuclear-cytoplasmic movements in living muscle fibers under various experimental conditions.

Localization and regulation of the N terminal splice variant of PGC-1α in adult skeletal muscle fibers

The transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) regulates expression of genes for metabolism and muscle fiber type. Recently, a novel splice variant of PGC-1α (NT-PGC-1α, amino acids 1-270) was cloned and found to be expressed in muscle. Here we use Flag-tagged NT-PGC-1α to examine the subcellular localization and regulation of NT-PGC-1α in skeletal muscle fibers. Flag-NT-PGC-1α is located predominantly in the myoplasm. Nuclear NT-PGC-1α can be increased by activation of protein kinase A. Activation of p38 MAPK by muscle activity or of AMPK had no effect on the subcellular distribution of NT-PGC-1α. Inhibition of CRM1-mediated export only caused relatively slow nuclear accumulation of NT-PGC-1α, indicating that nuclear export of NT-PGC-1α may be mediated by both CRM1-dependent and -independent pathways. Together these results suggest that the regulation of NT-PGC-1α in muscle fibers may be very different from that of the full-length PGC-1α, which is exclusively nuclear.

Nitric oxide synthase inhibition prevents activity-induced calcineurin-NFATc1 signalling and fast-to-slow skeletal muscle fibre type conversions

The calcineurin–NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells) signalling pathway is involved in the regulation of activity-dependent skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform type expression. Emerging evidence indicates that nitric oxide (NO) may play a critical role in this regulatory pathway. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the role of NO in activity-induced calcineurin–NFATc1 signalling leading to skeletal muscle faster-to-slower fibre type transformations in vivo. Endogenous NO production was blocked by administering L-NAME (0.75 mg ml(−1)) in drinking water throughout 0, 1, 2, 5 or 10 days of chronic low-frequency stimulation (CLFS; 10 Hz, 12 h day(−1)) of rat fast-twitch muscles (L+Stim; n = 30) and outcomes were compared with control rats receiving only CLFS (Stim; n = 30). Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses revealed that CLFS induced an increase in NFATc1 dephosphorylation and nuclear localisation, sustained by glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β phosphorylation in Stim, which were all abolished in L+Stim. Moreover, real-time RT-PCR revealed that CLFS induced an increased expression of MHC-I, -IIa and -IId(x) mRNAs in Stim that was abolished in L+Stim. SDS-PAGE and immunohistochemical analyses revealed that CLFS induced faster-to-slower MHC protein and fibre type transformations, respectively, within the fast fibre population of both Stim and L+Stim groups. The final fast type IIA to slow type I transformation, however, was prevented in L+Stim. It is concluded that NO regulates activity-induced MHC-based faster-to-slower fibre type transformations at the transcriptional level via inhibitory GSK-3β-induced facilitation of calcineurin–NFATc1 nuclear accumulation in vivo, whereas transformations within the fast fibre population may also involve translational control mechanisms independent of NO signalling.

Nuclear presence of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) c3 and c4 is required for Toll-like receptor-activated innate inflammatory response of monocytes/macrophages

Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFATs) are crucial transcription factors that tightly control proinflammatory cytokine expression for adaptive immunity in T and B lymphocytes. However, little is known about the role of NFATs for innate immunity in macrophages. In this study, we report that NFAT is required for Toll-like receptor (TLR)-initiated innate immune responses in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs). All TLR ligand stimulation including LPS, a TLR4 ligand, and Pam(3)CSK(4), a TLR1/2 ligand, induced expression of TNF which was inhibited by VIVIT, an NFAT-specific inhibitor peptide. BMMs from NFATc4 knock-out mouse expressed less TNF than wild type. Despite apparent association between NFAT and TNF, LPS did not directly activate NFAT based on NFAT-luciferase reporter assay, whereas NF-κB was inducibly activated by LPS. Instead, macrophage exhibited constitutive NFAT activity which was not increased by LPS and was decreased by VIVIT. Immunocytochemical examination of NFATc1-4 of BMMs exhibited nuclear localization of NFATc3/c4 regardless of LPS stimulation. LPS stimulation did not cause nuclear translocation of NFATc1/c2. Treatment with VIVIT resulted in nuclear export of NFATc3/c4 and inhibited TLR-activated TNF expression, suggesting that nuclear residence of NFATc is required for TLR-related innate immune response. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay using anti-RNA polymerase II (PolII) antibody suggested that VIVIT decreased PolII binding to TNF gene locus, consistent with VIVIT inhibition of LPS-induced TNF mRNA expression. This study identifies a novel paradigm of innate immune regulation rendered by NFAT which is a well known family of adaptive immune regulatory proteins.

Unraveling the secrets of a double life: contractile versus signaling Ca2+ in a cardiac myocyte

No other inorganic molecule known in biology is considered as versatile as Ca(2+). In a vast majority of cell types, Ca(2+) acts as a universal second messenger underlying critical cellular processes varying from gene transcription to cell death. Although the role of Ca(2+) in myocyte contraction has been known for over a century, it was only more recently that this divalent cation has been implicated in mediating reactive signal transduction to promote cardiac hypertrophy. However, it remains unclear how Ca(2+)-dependent signaling pathways are regulated/activated in a cardiac myocyte given the prevailing conditions throughout the cytosol where Ca(2+) concentration oscillates between 100 nM and upwards of 1-2 μM during each contractile cycle. In this review we will examine three hypotheses put forward to explain how Ca(2+) might still function as a hypertrophic signaling molecule in cardiac myocytes and discuss the current literature that supports each of these views. This article is part of a special issue entitled "Local Signaling in Myocytes."

Angiotensin II and norepinephrine activate specific calcineurin-dependent NFAT transcription factor isoforms in cardiomyocytes

Norepinephrine (NE) and angiotensin II (ANG II) are primary effectors of the sympathetic adrenergic and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone systems, mediating hypertrophic, apoptotic, and fibrotic events in the myocardium. As NE and ANG II have been shown to affect intracellular calcium in cardiomyocytes, we hypothesized that they activate the calcium-sensitive, prohypertrophic calcineurin-nuclear factor of activated T-cell (NFATc) signaling pathway. More specifically, we have investigated isoform-specific activation of NFAT in NE- and ANG II-stimulated cardiomyocytes, as it is likely that each of the four calcineurin-dependent isoforms, c1-c4, play specific roles. We have stimulated neonatal ventriculocytes from C57/B6 and NFAT-luciferase reporter mice with ANG II or NE and quantified NFAT activity by luciferase activity and phospho-immunoblotting. ANG II and NE increased calcineurin-dependent NFAT activity 2.4- and 1.9-fold, measured as luciferase activity after 24 h of stimulation, and induced protein synthesis, measured by radioactive leucine incorporation after 24 and 72 h. To optimize measurements of NFAT isoforms, we examined the specificity of NFAT antibodies on peptide arrays and by immunoblotting with designed blocking peptides. Western analyses showed that both effectors activate NFATc1 and c4, while NFATc2 activity was regulated by NE only, as measured by phospho-NFAT levels. Neither ANG II nor NE activated NFATc3. As today's main therapies for heart failure aim at antagonizing the adrenergic and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone systems, understanding their intracellular actions is of importance, and our data, through validating a method for measuring myocardial NFATs, indicate that ANG II and NE activate specific NFATc isoforms in cardiomyocytes.

Regulation of exercise-induced fiber type transformation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and angiogenesis in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle exhibits superb plasticity in response to changes in functional demands. Chronic increases of skeletal muscle contractile activity, such as endurance exercise, lead to a variety of physiological and biochemical adaptations in skeletal muscle, including mitochondrial biogenesis, angiogenesis, and fiber type transformation. These adaptive changes are the basis for the improvement of physical performance and other health benefits. This review focuses on recent findings in genetically engineered animal models designed to elucidate the mechanisms and functions of various signal transduction pathways and gene expression programs in exercise-induced skeletal muscle adaptations.

Excitation-transcription coupling in skeletal muscle: the molecular pathways of exercise

Muscle fibres have different properties with respect to force, contraction speed, endurance, oxidative/glycolytic capacity etc. Although adult muscle fibres are normally post-mitotic with little turnover of cells, the physiological properties of the pre-existing fibres can be changed in the adult animal upon changes in usage such as after exercise. The signal to change is mainly conveyed by alterations in the patterns of nerve-evoked electrical activity, and is to a large extent due to switches in the expression of genes. Thus, an excitation-transcription coupling must exist. It is suggested that changes in nerve-evoked muscle activity lead to a variety of activity correlates such as increases in free intracellular Ca²⁺ levels caused by influx across the cell membrane and/or release from the sarcoplasmatic reticulum, concentrations of metabolites such as lipids and ADP, hypoxia and mechanical stress. Such correlates are detected by sensors such as protein kinase C (PKC), calmodulin, AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ), and oxygen dependent prolyl hydroxylases that trigger intracellular signaling cascades. These complex cascades involve several transcription factors such as nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT), myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2), myogenic differentiation factor (myoD), myogenin, PPARδ, and sine oculis homeobox 1/eyes absent 1 (Six1/Eya1). These factors might act indirectly by inducing gene products that act back on the cascade, or as ultimate transcription factors binding to and transactivating/repressing genes for the fast and slow isoforms of various contractile proteins and of metabolic enzymes. The determination of size and force is even more complex as this involves not only intracellular signaling within the muscle fibres, but also muscle stem cells called satellite cells. Intercellular signaling substances such as myostatin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) seem to act in a paracrine fashion. Induction of hypertrophy is accompanied by the satellite cells fusing to myofibres and thereby increasing the capacity for protein synthesis. These extra nuclei seem to remain part of the fibre even during subsequent atrophy as a form of muscle memory facilitating retraining. In addition to changes in myonuclear number during hypertrophy, changes in muscle fibre size seem to be caused by alterations in transcription, translation (per nucleus) and protein degradation.

DNA binding sites target nuclear NFATc1 to heterochromatin regions in adult skeletal muscle fibers

We have previously demonstrated that Ca²+/calcineurin-dependent dephosphorylation of the transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells subtype 1 (NFATc1) during repetitive skeletal muscle activity causes NFAT nuclear translocation and concentration in subnuclear NFAT foci. We now show that NFAT nuclear foci colocalize with heterochromatin regions of intense staining by DAPI or TO-PRO-3 that are present in the nucleus prior to NFATc1 nuclear entry. Nuclear NFATc1 also colocalizes with the heterochromatin markers trimethyl-histone H3 (Lys9) and heterochromatin protein 1α. Mutation of the NFATc1 DNA binding sites prevents entry and localization of NFATc1 in heterochromatin regions. However, fluorescence in situ hybridization shows that the NFAT-regulated genes for slow and fast myosin heavy chains are not localized within the heterochromatin regions. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching shows that within a given nucleus, NFATc1 redistributes relatively rapidly (t(¹/₂) < 1 min) between NFAT foci. Nuclear export of an NFATc1 mutant not concentrated in NFAT foci is accelerated following nuclear entry during fiber activity, indicating buffering of free nuclear NFATc1 by NFATc1 within the NFAT foci. Taken together, our results suggest that NFAT foci serve as nuclear storage sites for NFATc1, allowing it to rapidly mobilize to other nuclear regions as required.

Activation of NFATc1 is directly mediated by IP3 in adult cardiac myocytes

The Ca(2+)-sensitive nuclear factor of activated T cell (NFAT) transcription factors are implicated in cardiac development and cellular remodeling associated with cardiac disease. In adult myocytes it is not resolved what specific Ca(2+) signals control the activity of different NFAT isoforms in an environment that undergoes large changes of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration with every heart beat. Cardiac myocytes possess the complete inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))/Ca(2+)-signaling cassette; however, its physiological and pathological significance has been a matter of ongoing debate. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis whether IP(3) receptor activation regulates NFAT activity in cardiac myocytes. We used confocal microscopy to quantify the nuclear localization of NFATc1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) and NFATc3-GFP fusion proteins (quantified as the ratio of nuclear NFAT to cytoplasmic NFAT) in response to stimulation with neurohumoral agonists. In rabbit atrial myocytes, an overnight stimulation with endothelin-1, angiotensin II, and phenylephrine induced nuclear accumulation of NFATc1 that was sensitive to calcineurin inhibitors (cyclosporin A or inhibitor of NFAT-calcineurin association-6) and prevented by the IP(3) receptor inhibitor 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate. Furthermore, a direct elevation of intracellular IP(3) with a cell-permeable IP(3) acetoxymethyl ester (10 μM) induced nuclear localization of NFATc1. With a fluorescence-based in vivo assay, we showed that endothelin-1 also enhanced the transcriptional activity of NFATc1 in atrial cells. The agonists failed to activate NFATc1 in rabbit ventricular cells, which express IP(3) receptors at a lower density than atrial cells. They also did not activate NFATc3, an isoform that is highly influenced by nuclear export processes, in both cell types. Our data show that the second messenger IP(3) is directly involved in the activation of NFATc1 in adult atrial cardiomyocytes.

A fluorescence-based assay to monitor transcriptional activity of NFAT in living cells

Ca(2+)-sensitive NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells) transcription factors are implicated in many pathophysiological processes in different cell types. The precise control of activation varies with NFAT isoform and cell type. Here we present feasibility of an in vivo assay (NFAT-RFP) that reports transcriptional activity of NFAT via expression of red fluorescent protein (RFP) in individual cells. This new tool allows continuous monitoring of transcriptional activity of NFAT in a physiological context in living cells. Furthermore, NFAT-RFP can be used simultaneously with NFAT-GFP fusion proteins to monitor transcriptional activity and subcellular localization of NFAT in the same cell.

Isoform- and tissue-specific regulation of the Ca(2+)-sensitive transcription factor NFAT in cardiac myocytes and heart failure

Nuclear factors of activated T cells (NFATs) are Ca(2+)-sensitive transcription factors that have been implicated in hypertrophy, heart failure (HF), and arrhythmias. Cytosolic NFAT is activated by dephosphorylation by the Ca(2+)-sensitive phosphatase calcineurin, resulting in translocation to the nucleus, which is opposed by kinase activity, rephosphorylation, and nuclear export. Four different NFAT isoforms are expressed in the heart. The activation and regulation of NFAT in adult cardiac myocytes, which may depend on the NFAT isoform and cell type, are not fully understood. This study compared basal localization, import, and export of NFATc1 and NFATc3 in adult atrial and ventricular myocytes to identify isoform- and tissue-specific regulatory mechanisms of NFAT activation under physiological conditions and in HF. NFAT-green fluorescent protein fusion proteins and NFAT immunocytochemistry were used to analyze NFAT regulation in adult cat and rabbit myocytes. NFATc1 displayed basal nuclear localization in atrial and ventricular myocytes, an effect that was attenuated by reducing intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and inhibiting calcineurin, and enhanced by the inhibition of nuclear export. In contrast, NFATc3 was localized to the cytoplasm but could be driven to the nucleus by angiotensin II and endothelin-1 stimulation in atrial, but not ventricular, cells. Inhibition of nuclear export (by leptomycin B) facilitated nuclear localization in both cell types. Ventricular myocytes from HF rabbits showed increased basal nuclear localization of endogenous NFATc3 and reduced responsiveness of NFAT translocation to phenylephrine stimulation. In control myocytes, Ca(2+) overload, leading to spontaneous Ca(2+) waves, induced substantial translocation of NFATc3 to the nucleus. We conclude that the activation of NFAT in adult cardiomyocytes is isoform and tissue specific and is tightly controlled by nuclear export. NFAT is activated in myocytes from HF animals and may be secondary to Ca(2+) overload.

Therapeutic targeting of signaling pathways in muscular dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy refers to a group of genetic diseases that cause severe muscle weakness and loss of skeletal muscle mass. Although research has helped understanding the molecular basis of muscular dystrophy, there is still no cure for this devastating disorder. Numerous lines of investigation suggest that the primary deficiency of specific proteins causes aberrant activation of several cell signaling pathways in skeletal and cardiac muscle leading to the pathogenesis of muscular dystrophy. Studies using genetic mouse models and pharmacological approaches have provided strong evidence that the modulation of the activity of specific cell signaling pathways has enormous potential to improving the quality of life and extending the life expectancy in muscular dystrophy patients. In this article, we have outlined the current understanding regarding the role of different cell signaling pathways in disease progression with particular reference to different models of muscular dystrophy and the development of therapy.

NFAT isoforms control activity-dependent muscle fiber type specification

The intracellular signals that convert fast and slow motor neuron activity into muscle fiber type specific transcriptional programs have only been partially defined. The calcium/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase calcineurin (Cn) has been shown to mediate the transcriptional effects of motor neuron activity, but precisely how 4 distinct muscle fiber types are composed and maintained in response to activity is largely unknown. Here, we show that 4 nuclear factor of activated T cell (NFAT) family members act coordinately downstream of Cn in the specification of muscle fiber types. We analyzed the role of NFAT family members in vivo by transient transfection in skeletal muscle using a loss-of-function approach by RNAi. Our results show that, depending on the applied activity pattern, different combinations of NFAT family members translocate to the nucleus contributing to the transcription of fiber type specific genes. We provide evidence that the transcription of slow and fast myosin heavy chain (MyHC) genes uses different combinations of NFAT family members, ranging from MyHC-slow, which uses all 4 NFAT isoforms, to MyHC-2B, which only uses NFATc4. Our data contribute to the elucidation of the mechanisms whereby activity can modulate the phenotype and performance of skeletal muscle.

Regulation of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) in vascular endothelial cells

Proteins of the NFAT family (nuclear factor of activated T cells) are Ca(2+)-sensitive transcription factors, which are involved in hypertrophic cardiovascular remodeling. Activation and nuclear translocation is mediated by dephosphorylation by the Ca(2+)-sensitive phosphatase calcineurin (CaN). We identified Ca(2+) signals that induced nuclear translocation of NFAT in cultured calf pulmonary artery endothelial (CPAE) cells using confocal fluorescence microscopy to measure simultaneously [Ca(2+)](i) and subcellular localization of NFAT-GFP (isoforms NFATc1 and NFATc3). The vasoactive agonists ATP (5 microM) or bradykinin (20 microM) in the presence of 2 mM extracellular Ca(2+) induced Ca(2+) release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and activated capacitative Ca(2+) entry (CCE), which caused robust translocation of NFAT to the nucleus. This effect was sensitive to the CaN-inhibitor cyclosporin A (1 microM). Influx of extracellular Ca(2+) via CCE, but not ER Ca(2+) release was identified as the activating Ca(2+) source. NFAT was also activated by Ca(2+) influx induced by cell swelling, reverse mode Na/Ca exchange or ionomycin treatment. NFAT regulation was isoform-specific. Whereas activation of NFATc1-GFP by ATP resulted in persistent nuclear localization, NFATc3-GFP was only transiently imported into the nucleus, followed by rapid export back to the cytoplasm. Inhibition of nuclear kinases, which mediate export of NFAT via phosphorylation, or direct block of nuclear export (Leptomycin B) resulted in stable nuclear localization of NFATc3. These data demonstrate that extracellular Ca(2+) entry mediates NFAT activation. Furthermore, the regulation of nuclear localization of NFAT is isoform-specific and dependent on nuclear export processes.

Osmolarity and intracellular calcium regulate aquaporin2 expression through TonEBP in nucleus pulposus cells of the intervertebral disc

The goal of this study was to examine the expression and regulation of aquaporin2 (AQP2), a tonicity-sensitive water channel in nucleus pulposus cells of the intervertebral disc. We found that AQP2 protein was expressed in vivo in both rat and human discs. We determined whether AQP2 promoter expression was regulated by osmolarity in a tonicity enhancer binding protein (TonEBP)-dependent manner.When TonEBP was suppressed under hypertonic conditions or overexpressed under isotonic conditions,AQP2 promoter activity was correspondingly inhibited or induced. The role of TonEBP in controlling AQP2 expression was confirmed using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from TonEBP-null mice. We studied whether calcium in addition to osmolarity played a role in regulation of AQP2 in nucleus pulposus cells. We also determined whether both TonEBP and calcineurin-nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)signaling contributed to ionomycin, a calcium ionophore, mediated induction of AQP2. Co-transfection of AQP2 reporter with calcineurin (CnA/B) and/or NFAT1-4 vectors suggested that this pathway did not control AQP2 promoter activity in nucleus pulposus cells. These findings were also validated using MEFs from TonEBP, fibroblasts from CnAalpha- and CnAbeta-null mice, and mutant TonE reporter constructs. Results of these studies suggest that, in nucleus pulposus cells, osmotic pressure and calcium modulate AQP2 expression through TonEBP and are independent of the calcineurin-NFAT pathway. Because calcium flux reflects a change in applied stress, the possibility exists that NFAT5/TonEBP modulate not just water balance in the disc but also accommodate applied biomechanical forces.

Identification of FHL1 as a regulator of skeletal muscle mass: implications for human myopathy

Regulators of skeletal muscle mass are of interest, given the morbidity and mortality of muscle atrophy and myopathy. Four-and-a-half LIM protein 1 (FHL1) is mutated in several human myopathies, including reducing-body myopathy (RBM). The normal function of FHL1 in muscle and how it causes myopathy remains unknown. We find that FHL1 transgenic expression in mouse skeletal muscle promotes hypertrophy and an oxidative fiber-type switch, leading to increased whole-body strength and fatigue resistance. Additionally, FHL1 overexpression enhances myoblast fusion, resulting in hypertrophic myotubes in C2C12 cells, (a phenotype rescued by calcineurin inhibition). In FHL1-RBM C2C12 cells, there are no hypertrophic myotubes. FHL1 binds with the calcineurin-regulated transcription factor NFATc1 (nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic, calcineurin-dependent 1), enhancing NFATc1 transcriptional activity. Mutant RBM-FHL1 forms aggregate bodies in C2C12 cells, sequestering NFATc1 and resulting in reduced NFAT nuclear translocation and transcriptional activity. NFATc1 also colocalizes with mutant FHL1 to reducing bodies in RBM-afflicted skeletal muscle. Therefore, via NFATc1 signaling regulation, FHL1 appears to modulate muscle mass and strength enhancement.

Chapter 2. Calcineurin signaling and the slow oxidative skeletal muscle fiber type

Calcineurin, also known as protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B), is a calcium-calmodulin-dependent phosphatase. It couples intracellular calcium to dephosphorylate selected substrates resulting in diverse biological consequences depending on cell type. In mammals, calcineurin's functions include neuronal growth, development of cardiac valves and hypertrophy, activation of lymphocytes, and the regulation of ion channels and enzymes. This chapter focuses on the key roles of calcineurin in skeletal muscle differentiation, regeneration, and fiber type conversion to an oxidative state, all of which are crucial to muscle development, metabolism, and functional adaptations. It seeks to integrate the current knowledge of calcineurin signaling in skeletal muscle and its interactions with other prominent regulatory pathways and their signaling intermediates to form a molecular overview that could provide directions for possible future exploitations in human metabolic health.

Does contractile Ca2+ control calcineurin-NFAT signaling and pathological hypertrophy in cardiac myocytes?

In noncontractile cells, a sustained increase in total cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration is typically needed to activate the intracellular protein phosphatase calcineurin, leading to dephosphorylation of the transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT), its nuclear translocation, and induction of gene expression. It remains a mystery exactly how Ca(2+)-dependent signaling pathways, such as that mediated by calcineurin-NFAT, are regulated in contracting cardiac myocytes given the highly specialized manner in which Ca(2+) concentration rhythmically cycles in excitation-contraction coupling. Here, we critically review evidence that supports the hypothesis that calcineurin-NFAT signaling is regulated by contractile Ca(2+) transients in cardiac myocytes.

NFAT activation by membrane potential follows a calcium pathway distinct from other activity-related transcription factors in skeletal muscle cells

Depolarization of skeletal muscle cells triggers intracellular Ca2+ signals mediated by ryanodine and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors. Previously, we have reported that K+-induced depolarization activates transcriptional regulators ERK, cAMP response element-binding protein, c- fos, c- jun, and egr-1 through IP3-dependent Ca2+ release, whereas NF-κB activation is elicited by both ryanodine and IP3 receptor-mediated Ca2+ signals. We have further shown that field stimulation with electrical pulses results in an NF-κB activation increase dependent of the amount of pulses and independent of their frequency. In this work, we report the results obtained for nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)-mediated transcription and translocation generated by both K+ and electrical stimulation protocols in primary skeletal muscle cells and C2C12 cells. The Ca2+ source for NFAT activation is through release by ryanodine receptors and extracellular Ca2+ entry. We found this activation to be independent of the number of pulses within a physiological range of stimulus frequency and enhanced by long-lasting low-frequency stimulation. Therefore, activation of the NFAT signaling pathway differs from that of NF-κB and other transcription factors. Calcineurin enzyme activity correlated well with the relative activation of NFAT translocation and transcription using different stimulation protocols. Furthermore, both K+-induced depolarization and electrical stimulation increased mRNA levels of the type 1 IP3 receptor mediated by calcineurin activity, which suggests that depolarization may regulate IP3 receptor transcription. These results confirm the presence of at least two independent pathways for excitation-transcription coupling in skeletal muscle cells, both dependent on Ca2+ release and triggered by the same voltage sensor but activating different intracellular release channels.

Developmental regulation of the mouse IGF-I exon 1 promoter region by calcineurin activation of NFAT in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle development and growth are regulated through multiple signaling pathways that include insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and calcineurin activation of nuclear factor of activated T cell (NFAT) transcription factors. The developmental regulation and molecular mechanisms that control IGF-I gene expression in murine embryos and in differentiating C2C12 skeletal myocytes were examined. IGF-I is expressed in developing skeletal muscle, and its embryonic expression is significantly reduced in embryos lacking both NFATc3 and NFATc4. During development, the IGF-I exon 1 promoter is active in multiple organ systems, including skeletal muscle, whereas the alternative exon 2 promoter is expressed predominantly in the liver. The IGF-I exon 1 promoter flanking sequence includes two highly conserved regions that contain NFAT consensus binding sequences. One of these conserved regions contains a calcineurin/NFAT-responsive regulatory region that is preferentially activated by NFATc3 in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells and NIH3T3 fibroblasts. This NFAT-responsive region contains three clustered NFAT consensus binding sequences, and mutagenesis experiments demonstrated the requirement for two of these in calcineurin or NFATc3 responsiveness. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses demonstrated that endogenous IGF-I genomic sequences containing these conserved NFAT binding sequences interact preferentially with NFATc3 in C2C12 cells. Together, these experiments demonstrated that a NFAT-rich regulatory element in the IGF-I exon 1 promoter flanking region is responsive to calcineurin signaling and NFAT activation in skeletal muscle cells. The identification of a calcineurin/NFAT-responsive element in the IGF-I gene represents a potential mechanism of intersection of these signaling pathways in the control of muscle development and homeostasis.

Signaling mechanisms involved in disuse muscle atrophy

Prolonged periods of skeletal muscle inactivity due to bed rest, denervation, hindlimb unloading, immobilization, or microgravity can result in significant muscle atrophy. The muscle atrophy is characterized as decreased muscle fiber cross-sectional area and protein content, reduced force, increased insulin resistance as well as a slow to fast fiber type transition. The decreases in protein synthesis and increases in protein degradation rates account for the majority of the rapid loss of muscle protein due to disuse. However, we are just beginning to pay more attention on the identification of genes involved in triggering initial responses to physical inactivity/microgravity. Our review mainly focuses on the signaling pathways involved in protein loss during disuse atrophy, including two recently identified ubiquitin ligases: muscle RING finger 1 (MuRF1) and muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx). Recent reports suggest that inhibition of the IGF-1/PI3K/Akt pathway in muscle may be involved in the progression of disuse atrophy. NF-kappaB seems to be a key intracellular signal transducer in disuse atrophy. Factors such as myostatin, p38 and calcineurin can induce muscle protein loss under specified conditions, but further experiments are needed to determine whether they are necessary components of disuse atrophy. Where possible, the molecular mechanisms underlying the slow to fast fiber type transition and increased insulin resistance in atrophic muscles are discussed as well. Collectively, the disuse-induced muscle atrophy is a highly ordered process that is controlled by interactions between intracellular signaling pathways rather than isolated pathways.

Regulation of the nuclear export of the transcription factor NFATc1 by protein kinases after slow fibre type electrical stimulation of adult mouse skeletal muscle fibres

The transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)c1 has been shown to be involved in turning on slow skeletal muscle fibre gene expression. Previous studies from our laboratory have characterized the stimulation pattern-dependent nuclear import and resting shuttling of NFATc1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) in flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) muscle fibres from adult mouse. In this study, we use viral expression of the transcription factor NFATc1-GFP fusion protein to investigate the mechanisms underlying the nuclear export of the NFATc1-GFP that accumulated in the nuclei of cultured dissociated adult mouse FDB muscle fibres during slow-twitch fibre type electrical stimulation. In these studies, we found that inhibition of either glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta) or casein kinase 1 or 2 (CK1/2) markedly slowed the decay of nuclear NFATc1-GFP after cessation of muscle fibre electrical stimulation, whereas inhibition of casein kinase 1delta, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase and protein kinase A had little effect. Simultaneous inhibition of GSK3beta and CK1/2 completely blocked the nuclear export of NFATc1-GFP after muscle activity. We also developed a simplified model of NFATc1 phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and nuclear fluxes, and used this model to simulate the observed time courses of nuclear NFATc1-GFP with and without NFATc1 kinase inhibition. Our results suggest that GSK3beta and CK1/2 are the major protein kinases that contribute to the removal of NFATc1 that accumulates in muscle fibre nuclei during muscle activity, and that GSK3beta and CK1/2 are responsible for phosphorylating NFATc1 in muscle nuclei in a complementary or synergistic fashion.

Parallel mechanisms for resting nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling and activity dependent translocation provide dual control of transcriptional regulators HDAC and NFAT in skeletal muscle fiber type plasticity

Skeletal muscle fibers exhibit plasticity of their physiological and biochemical properties in response to the firing pattern from the innervating motor neuron. In particular, the gene expression pattern generally characteristic of a slow twitch fiber can be induced in a fast twitch fiber by chronic slow fiber type electrical stimulation. We have studied the nucleo-cytoplasmic distribution of two transcriptional regulators of slow fiber type genes, HDAC4 and NFATc1, both in response to slow fiber type stimulation and in resting conditions using cultured fast twitch skeletal muscle fibers. HDAC4 is present in both cytoplasm and nuclei of resting fibers, and moves out of the nuclei in response to slow fiber type stimulation. The stimulation-dependent nuclear efflux of HDAC4 requires activation of nuclear CaMKII, which phosphorylates nuclear HDAC4 and thus allows its exit of the nucleus. In unstimulated resting fibers, a balance of nuclear efflux and influx of HDAC4 establishes the resting level of nuclear HDAC4. However, the nuclear efflux of HDAC4 in resting fibers does not involve CaMKII. Slow fiber type stimulation also causes NFATc1 translocation from the cytoplasm into muscle fiber nuclei following dephosphorylation by calcineurin (CaN) activated by the elevated cytosolic Ca2+ accompanying fiber stimulation. In resting fibers, NFATc1 exhibits balanced shuttling between cytoplasm and nucleus, but during this shuttling NFATc1 influx does not require CaN and NFATc1 efflux does not require the kinases involved in removing nuclear NFATc1 following prior activity. Thus different enzymes are responsible for HDAC4 nuclear efflux in resting and active fibers, and different pathways mediate NFATc1 nuclear influx and efflux in resting and active fibers. Such dual mechanisms for resting shuttling and active movements provide the potential for the resting level and the rate of translocation during fiber stimulation to be controlled independently for both of the transcriptional regulators HDAC4 and NFATc1.

Contraction-induced interleukin-6 transcription in rat slow-type muscle is partly dependent on calcineurin activation

The present work aimed at determining whether interleukin-6 (IL-6) produced by skeletal muscle during exercise is related, at least partly, to calcineurin activity. Rats were treated with two specific calcineurin inhibitors, cyclosporin A (CsA) and FK506, or vehicle (Vhl); they were then subjected to exhaustive treadmill running. Modulatory Calcineurin-Interacting Protein-1 (MCIP-1) mRNA levels, a reliable indicator of calcineurin activity, and IL-6 mRNA levels were measured by real-time RT-PCR in soleus muscles, and IL-6 protein concentration was measured in the plasma. Because low carbohydrates availability enhances IL-6 transcription through p38 Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathway, muscle glycogen content and glycaemia were measured and p38 MAPK phosphorylation was determined in skeletal muscle by western blotting. As expected, exercise induced an increase in IL-6 (P < 0.01) and MCIP-1 mRNA (P < 0.01) in soleus muscle of Vhl rats, and enhanced p38 phosphorylation and plasmatic IL-6 protein (P < 0.05). Calcineurin inhibition did not affect running time, glycemia or soleus glycogen content. CsA administration totally inhibited the exercise-induced increase in MCIP-1 mRNA (P < 0.01), blunted the IL-6 gene transcription related to muscle activity, and suppressed the changes in IL-6 protein in plasma. In addition to its inhibition of calcineurin activity, FK506 administration totally suppressed the exercise-induced IL-6 gene transcription, likely by an inhibition of p38 activation. Taken together, these results demonstrate that in addition to p38 MAPK, increased calcineurin activity is one of the signalling events involved in IL-6 gene transcription.