A global, myosin light chain kinase-dependent increase in myosin II contractility accompanies the metaphase-anaphase transition in sea urchin eggs

Use of Echinoderm Gametes and Early Embryos for Studying Meiosis and Mitosis

The early embryos of sea urchins and other echinoderms have served as experimental models for the study of cell division since the nineteenth century. Their rapid development, optical clarity, and ease of manipulation continue to offer advantages for studying spindle assembly and cytokinesis. In the absence of transgenic lines, alternative strategies must be employed to visualize microtubules and actin. Here, we describe methods to visualize actin and microtubule using either purified, recombinant proteins, or probes in in vitro-transcribed mRNAs.

The nanoscale organization of the Wnt signaling integrator Dishevelled in the vegetal cortex domain of an egg and early embryo

Canonical Wnt/β-catenin (cWnt) signaling is a crucial regulator of development and Dishevelled (Dsh/Dvl) functions as an integral part of this pathway by linking Wnt binding to the Frizzled:LRP5/6 receptor complex with β-catenin-stimulated gene expression. In many cell types Dsh has been localized to ill-defined cytoplasmic puncta, however in sea urchin eggs and embryos confocal fluorescence microscopy has shown that Dsh is localized to puncta present in a novel and development-essential vegetal cortex domain (VCD). In the present study, we used super-resolution light microscopy and platinum replica transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to provide the first views of the ultrastructural organization of Dsh within the sea urchin VCD. 3D structured illumination microscopy (SIM) imaging of isolated egg cortices demonstrated the graded distribution of Dsh in the VCD, whereas higher resolution stimulated emission depletion (STED) imaging revealed that some individual Dsh puncta consisted of more than one fluorescent source. Platinum replica immuno-TEM localization showed that Dsh puncta on the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane consisted of aggregates of pedestal-like structures each individually labeled with the C-terminus specific Dsh antibody. These aggregates were resistant to detergent extraction and treatment with drugs that disrupt actin filaments or inhibit myosin II contraction, and coexisted with the first cleavage actomyosin contractile ring. These results confirm and extend previous studies and reveal, for the first time in any cell type, the nanoscale organization of plasma membrane tethered Dsh. Our current working hypothesis is that these Dsh pedestals represent a prepositioned scaffold organization that is important for the localized activation of the cWnt pathway at the sea urchin vegetal pole. These observations in sea urchins may also be relevant to the submembranous Dsh puncta present in other eggs and embryos.

Rac and Arp2/3-Nucleated Actin Networks Antagonize Rho During Mitotic and Meiotic Cleavages

In motile cells, the activities of the different Rho family GTPases are spatially segregated within the cell, and during cytokinesis there is evidence that this may also be the case. But while Rho’s role as the central organizer for contractile ring assembly is well established, the role of Rac and the branched actin networks it promotes is less well understood. To characterize the contributions of these proteins during cytokinesis, we manipulated Rac and Arp2/3 activity during mitosis and meiosis in sea urchin embryos and sea star oocytes. While neither Rac nor Arp2/3 were essential for early embryonic divisions, loss of either Rac or Arp2/3 activity resulted in polar body defects. Expression of activated Rac resulted in cytokinesis failure as early as the first division, and in oocytes, activated Rac suppressed both the Rho wave that traverses the oocyte prior to polar body extrusion as well as polar body formation itself. However, the inhibitory effect of Rac on cytokinesis, polar body formation and the Rho wave could be suppressed by effector-binding mutations or direct inhibition of Arp2/3. Together, these results suggest that Rac- and Arp2/3 mediated actin networks may directly antagonize Rho signaling, thus providing a potential mechanism to explain why Arp2/3-nucleated branched actin networks must be suppressed at the cell equator for successful cytokinesis.

Live-cell fluorescence imaging of echinoderm embryos

The rapid development, simplicity and optical clarity of the sea urchin embryo make it an excellent model system for studying the dynamic events of early development. An ever-growing palette of fluorescent proteins and biosensors can now be applied to studying sea urchin development, and there are now a wide variety of imaging modes that can be employed to image sea urchin embryogenesis. However, when performing live-cell imaging, one must take into consideration the sensitivity of embryos (and fluorescent probes) to the intense light associated with confocal microscopes. Here, we discuss general considerations for keeping embryos viable on the microscope stage, as well as probes for imaging cellular membranes and the cytoskeleton. We compare the relative merits of different confocal microscopes for live imaging of embryos and describe the potential for live-cell super-resolution microscopy.

Biochemical alterations in the oocyte in support of early embryonic development

Notwithstanding the enormous reproductive potential encapsulated within a mature mammalian oocyte, these cells present only a limited window for fertilization before defaulting to an apoptotic cascade known as post-ovulatory oocyte aging. The only cell with the capacity to rescue this potential is the fertilizing spermatozoon. Indeed, the union of these cells sets in train a remarkable series of events that endows the oocyte with the capacity to divide and differentiate into the trillions of cells that comprise a new individual. Traditional paradigms hold that, beyond the initial stimulation of fluctuating calcium (Ca2+) required for oocyte activation, the fertilizing spermatozoon plays limited additional roles in the early embryo. While this model has now been drawn into question in view of the recent discovery that spermatozoa deliver developmentally important classes of small noncoding RNAs and other epigenetic modulators to oocytes during fertilization, it is nevertheless apparent that the primary responsibility for oocyte activation rests with a modest store of maternally derived proteins and mRNA accumulated during oogenesis. It is, therefore, not surprising that widespread post-translational modifications, in particular phosphorylation, hold a central role in endowing these proteins with sufficient functional diversity to initiate embryonic development. Indeed, proteins targeted for such modifications have been linked to oocyte activation, recruitment of maternal mRNAs, DNA repair and resumption of the cell cycle. This review, therefore, seeks to explore the intimate relationship between Ca2+ release and the suite of molecular modifications that sweep through the oocyte to ensure the successful union of the parental germlines and ensure embryogenic fidelity.

Ca2+ Signalling and Membrane Dynamics During Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

Interest in the role of Ca²⁺ signalling as a possible regulator of the combinatorial processes that result in the separation of the daughter cells during cytokinesis, extend back almost a 100 years. One of the key processes required for the successful completion of cytokinesis in animal cells (especially in the large holoblastically and meroblastically dividing embryonic cells of a number of amphibian and fish species), is the dynamic remodelling of the plasma membrane. Ca²⁺ signalling was subsequently demonstrated to regulate various different aspects of cytokinesis in animal cells, and so here we focus specifically on the role of Ca²⁺ signalling in the remodelling of the plasma membrane. We begin by providing a brief history of the animal models used and the research accomplished by the early twentieth century investigators, with regards to this aspect of animal cell cytokinesis. We then review the most recent progress made (i.e., in the last 10 years), which has significantly advanced our current understanding on the role of cytokinetic Ca²⁺ signalling in membrane remodelling. To this end, we initially summarize what is currently known about the Ca²⁺ transients generated during animal cell cytokinesis, and then we describe the latest findings regarding the source of Ca²⁺ generating these transients. Finally, we review the current evidence about the possible targets of the different cytokinetic Ca²⁺ transients with a particular emphasis on those that either directly or indirectly affect plasma membrane dynamics. With regards to the latter, we discuss the possible role of the early Ca²⁺ signalling events in the deformation of the plasma membrane at the start of cytokinesis (i.e., during furrow positioning), as well as the role of the subsequent Ca²⁺ signals in the trafficking and fusion of vesicles, which help to remodel the plasma membrane during the final stages of cell division. As it is becoming clear that each of the cytokinetic Ca²⁺ transients might have multiple, integrated targets, deciphering the precise role of each transient represents a significant (and ongoing) challenge.

Influence of cell polarity on early development of the sea urchin embryo

BACKGROUND

Establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is critical for normal embryonic development. Previously, it was thought that the echinoderm embryo remained relatively unpolarized until the first asymmetric division at the 16-cell stage. Here, we analyzed roles of the cell polarity regulators, the PAR complex proteins, and how their disruption in early development affects later developmental milestones.

RESULTS

We found that PAR6, aPKC, and CDC42 localize to the apical cortex as early as the 2-cell stage and that this localization is retained through the gastrula stage. Of interest, PAR1 also colocalizes with these apical markers through the gastrula stage. Additionally, PAR1 was found to be in complex with aPKC, but not PAR6. PAR6, aPKC, and CDC42 are anchored in the cortical actin cytoskeleton by assembled myosin. Furthermore, assembled myosin was found to be necessary to maintain proper PAR6 localization through subsequent cleavage divisions. Interference with myosin assembly prevented the embryos from reaching the blastula stage, while transient disruptions of either actin or microtubules did not have this effect.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations suggest that disruptions of the polarity in the early embryo can have a significant impact on the ability of the embryo to reach later critical stages in development.

Supervillin binding to myosin II and synergism with anillin are required for cytokinesis

Cytokinesis, the process by which cytoplasm is apportioned between dividing daughter cells, requires coordination of myosin II function, membrane trafficking, and central spindle organization. Most known regulators act during late cytokinesis; a few, including the myosin II-binding proteins anillin and supervillin, act earlier. Anillin's role in scaffolding the membrane cortex with the central spindle is well established, but the mechanism of supervillin action is relatively uncharacterized. We show here that two regions within supervillin affect cell division: residues 831-1281, which bind central spindle proteins, and residues 1-170, which bind the myosin II heavy chain (MHC) and the long form of myosin light-chain kinase. MHC binding is required to rescue supervillin deficiency, and mutagenesis of this site creates a dominant-negative phenotype. Supervillin concentrates activated and total myosin II at the furrow, and simultaneous knockdown of supervillin and anillin additively increases cell division failure. Knockdown of either protein causes mislocalization of the other, and endogenous anillin increases upon supervillin knockdown. Proteomic identification of interaction partners recovered using a high-affinity green fluorescent protein nanobody suggests that supervillin and anillin regulate the myosin II and actin cortical cytoskeletons through separate pathways. We conclude that supervillin and anillin play complementary roles during vertebrate cytokinesis.

The role of myosin phosphorylation in anaphase chromosome movement

This work deals with the role of myosin phosphorylation in anaphase chromosome movement. Y27632 and ML7 block two different pathways for phosphorylation of the myosin regulatory light chain (MRLC). Both stopped or slowed chromosome movement when added to anaphase crane-fly spermatocytes. To confirm that the effects of the pharmacological agents were on the presumed targets, we studied cells stained with antibodies against mono- or bi-phosphorylated myosin. For all chromosomes whose movements were affected by a drug, the corresponding spindle fibres of the affected chromosomes had reduced levels of 1P- and 2P-myosin. Thus the drugs acted on the presumed target and myosin phosphorylation is involved in anaphase force production. Calyculin A, an inhibitor of MRLC dephosphorylation, reversed and accelerated the altered movements caused by Y27632 and ML-7, suggesting that another phosphorylation pathway is involved in phosphorylation of spindle myosin. Staurosporine, a more general phosphorylation inhibitor, also reduced the levels of MRLC phosphorylation and caused anaphase chromosomes to stop or slow. The effects of staurosporine on chromosome movements were not reversed by Calyculin A, confirming that another phosphorylation pathway is involved in phosphorylation of spindle myosin.

Centralspindlin and chromosomal passenger complex behavior during normal and Rappaport furrow specification in echinoderm embryos

The chromosomal passenger (CPC) and Centralspindlin complexes are essential for organizing the anaphase central spindle and providing cues that position the cytokinetic furrow between daughter nuclei. However, echinoderm zygotes are also capable of forming "Rappaport furrows" between asters positioned back-to-back without intervening chromosomes. To understand how these complexes contribute to normal and Rappaport furrow formation, we studied the localization patterns of Survivin and mitotic-kinesin-like-protein1 (MKLP1), members respectively of the CPC and the Centralspindlin complex, and the effect of CPC inhibition on cleavage in mono- and binucleate echinoderm zygotes. In zygotes, Survivin initially localized to metaphase chromosomes, upon anaphase onset relocalized to the central spindle and then, together with MKLP1 spread towards the equatorial cortex in an Aurora-dependent manner. Inhibition of Aurora kinase activity resulted in disruption of central spindle organization and furrow regression, although astral microtubule elongation and furrow initiation were normal. In binucleate cells containing two parallel spindles MKLP1 and Survivin localized to the plane of the former metaphase plate, but were not observed in the secondary cleavage plane formed between unrelated spindle poles, except when chromosomes were abnormally present there. However, the secondary furrow was sensitive to Aurora inhibition, indicating that Aurora kinase may still contribute to furrow ingression without chromosomes nearby. Our results provide insights that reconcile classic micromanipulation studies with current molecular understanding of furrow specification in animal cells.

Separation anxiety: stress, tension and cytokinesis

Cytokinesis, the physical separation of a mother cell into two daughter cells, progresses through a series of well-defined changes in morphology. These changes involve distinct biochemical and mechanical processes. Here, we review the mechanical features of cells during cytokinesis, discussing both the material properties as well as sources of stresses, both active and passive, which lead to the observed changes in morphology. We also describe a mechanosensory feedback control system that regulates protein localization and shape progression during cytokinesis.

Rho-kinase in sea urchin eggs and embryos

The activation of sea urchin eggs at fertilization provides an ideal system for studying the molecular events involved in cellular activation. Rho GTPases, which are key signaling enzymes in eukaryotes, are involved in sustaining the activation of sea urchin eggs; however, their downstream effectors have not yet been characterized. In somatic cells, RhoA regulates a serine/threonine kinase known as Rho-kinase (ROCK). The activity of ROCK in early sea urchin development has been inferred, but not tested directly. A ROCK gene was identified in the sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) genome and the sequence of its cDNA determined. The sea urchin ROCK (SpROCK) sequence predicts a protein of 158 kDa with >72% and 45% identities with different protein orthologues of the kinase catalytic domain and the complete protein sequence, respectively. SpROCK mRNA levels are high in unfertilized eggs and decrease to 35% after 15 min postfertilization and remain low up to the 4 cell stage. Antibodies to the human ROCK-I kinase domain revealed SpROCK to be concentrated in the cortex of eggs and early embryos. Co-immunoprecipitation assays indicate that RhoA and SpROCK are physically associated. This association is destroyed by treatment with the C3 exoenzyme and with the ROCK antagonist H-1152. H-1152 also inhibited DNA synthesis in embryos. We conclude that the Rho-dependent signaling pathway, via SpROCK, is essential for early embryonic development.

The spatial and mechanical challenges of female meiosis

Recent work shows that cytokinesis and other cellular morphogenesis events are tuned by an interplay among biochemical signals, cell shape, and cellular mechanics. In cytokinesis, this includes cross-talk between the cortical cytoskeleton and the mitotic spindle in coordination with cell cycle control, resulting in characteristic changes in cellular morphology and mechanics through metaphase and cytokinesis. The changes in cellular mechanics affect not just overall cell shape, but also mitotic spindle morphology and function. This review will address how these principles apply to oocytes undergoing the asymmetric cell divisions of meiosis I and II. The biochemical signals that regulate cell cycle timing during meiotic maturation and egg activation are crucial for temporal control of meiosis. Spatial control of the meiotic divisions is also important, ensuring that the chromosomes are segregated evenly and that meiotic division is clearly asymmetric, yielding two daughter cells - oocyte and polar body - with enormous volume differences. In contrast to mitotic cells, the oocyte does not undergo overt changes in cell shape with its progression through meiosis, but instead maintains a relatively round morphology with the exception of very localized changes at the time of polar body emission. Placement of the metaphase-I and -II spindles at the oocyte periphery is clearly important for normal polar body emission, although this is likely not the only control element. Here, consideration is given to how cellular mechanics could contribute to successful mammalian female meiosis, ultimately affecting egg quality and competence to form a healthy embryo.

Myosin light chain kinases and phosphatase in mitosis and cytokinesis

At mitosis, cells undergo drastic alterations in morphology and cytoskeletal organization including cell rounding during prophase, mitotic spindle assembly during prometaphase and metaphase, chromatid segregation in anaphase, and cytokinesis during telophase. It is well established that myosin II is a motor responsible for cytokinesis. Recent reports have indicated that myosin II is also involved in spindle assembly and karyokinesis. In this review, we summarize current understanding of the functions of myosin II in mitosis and cytokinesis of higher eukaryotes, and discuss the roles of possible upstream molecules that control myosin II in these mitotic events.

On the cutting edge: post-translational modifications in cytokinesis

Cytokinesis represents the final stage in the cell cycle, in which two daughter cells, each with their complement of the duplicated genome, physically separate. At the core of this process sits highly conserved machinery responsible for specifying the plane of division, building a contractile apparatus and ultimately cleaving cells in two. Although the 'parts list' of contributing proteins has been well described, mechanisms by which these parts are spatially and temporally regulated are only beginning to be understood. With advancements in biochemical and proteomic analyses, recent work has uncovered multiple new roles for post-translational modifications in the regulation of cytokinesis. Here, we review these latest findings and interpret our current understanding of cytokinesis in light of relevant modifications.

Novel interactors and a role for supervillin in early cytokinesis

Supervillin, the largest member of the villin/gelsolin/flightless family, is a peripheral membrane protein that regulates each step of cell motility, including cell spreading. Most known interactors bind within its amino (N)-terminus. We show here that the supervillin carboxy (C)-terminus can be modeled as supervillin-specific loops extending from gelsolin-like repeats plus a villin-like headpiece. We have identified 27 new candidate interactors from yeast two-hybrid screens. The interacting sequences from 12 of these proteins (BUB1, EPLIN/LIMA1, FLNA, HAX1, KIF14, KIFC3, MIF4GD/SLIP1, ODF2/Cenexin, RHAMM, STARD9/KIF16A, Tks5/SH3PXD2A, TNFAIP1) co-localize with and mis-localize EGFP-supervillin in mammalian cells, suggesting associations in vivo. Supervillin-interacting sequences within BUB1, FLNA, HAX1, and MIF4GD also mimic supervillin over-expression by inhibiting cell spreading. Most new interactors have known roles in supervillin-associated processes, e.g. cell motility, membrane trafficking, ERK signaling, and matrix invasion; three (KIF14, KIFC3, STARD9/KIF16A) have kinesin motor domains; and five (EPLIN, KIF14, BUB1, ODF2/cenexin, RHAMM) are important for cell division. GST fusions of the supervillin G2-G3 or G4-G6 repeats co-sediment KIF14 and EPLIN, respectively, consistent with a direct association. Supervillin depletion leads to increased numbers of bi- and multi-nucleated cells. Cytokinesis failure occurs predominately during early cytokinesis. Supervillin localizes with endogenous myosin II and EPLIN in the cleavage furrow, and overlaps with the oncogenic kinesin, KIF14, at the midbody. We conclude that supervillin, like its interactors, is important for efficient cytokinesis. Our results also suggest that supervillin and its interaction partners coordinate actin and microtubule motor functions throughout the cell cycle.

Cortical mechanics and meiosis II completion in mammalian oocytes are mediated by myosin-II and Ezrin-Radixin-Moesin (ERM) proteins

Cell division is inherently mechanical, with cell mechanics being a critical determinant governing the cell shape changes that accompany progression through the cell cycle. The mechanical properties of symmetrically dividing mitotic cells have been well characterized, whereas the contribution of cellular mechanics to the strikingly asymmetric divisions of female meiosis is very poorly understood. Progression of the mammalian oocyte through meiosis involves remodeling of the cortex and proper orientation of the meiotic spindle, and thus we hypothesized that cortical tension and stiffness would change through meiotic maturation and fertilization to facilitate and/or direct cellular remodeling. This work shows that tension in mouse oocytes drops about sixfold during meiotic maturation from prophase I to metaphase II and then increases ∼1.6-fold upon fertilization. The metaphase II egg is polarized, with tension differing ∼2.5-fold between the cortex over the meiotic spindle and the opposite cortex, suggesting that meiotic maturation is accompanied by assembly of a cortical domain with stiffer mechanics as part of the process to achieve asymmetric cytokinesis. We further demonstrate that actin, myosin-II, and the ERM (Ezrin/Radixin/Moesin) family of proteins are enriched in complementary cortical domains and mediate cellular mechanics in mammalian eggs. Manipulation of actin, myosin-II, and ERM function alters tension levels and also is associated with dramatic spindle abnormalities with completion of meiosis II after fertilization. Thus, myosin-II and ERM proteins modulate mechanical properties in oocytes, contributing to cell polarity and to completion of meiosis.

Deficiency in myosin light-chain phosphorylation causes cytokinesis failure and multipolarity in cancer cells

Cancer cells often have unstable genomes and increased centrosome and chromosome numbers, which are an important part of malignant transformation in the most recent model of tumorigenesis. However, very little is known about divisional failures in cancer cells that may lead to chromosomal and centrosomal amplifications. In this study, we show that cancer cells often failed at cytokinesis because of decreased phosphorylation of the myosin regulatory light chain (MLC), a key regulatory component of cortical contraction during division. Reduced MLC phosphorylation was associated with high expression of myosin phosphatase and/or reduced myosin light-chain kinase levels. Furthermore, expression of phosphomimetic MLC largely prevented cytokinesis failure in the tested cancer cells. When myosin light-chain phosphorylation was restored to normal levels by phosphatase knockdown, multinucleation and multipolar mitosis were markedly reduced, resulting in enhanced genome stabilization. Furthermore, both overexpression of myosin phosphatase or inhibition of the myosin light-chain kinase in nonmalignant cells could recapitulate some of the mitotic defects of cancer cells, including multinucleation and multipolar spindles, indicating that these changes are sufficient to reproduce the cytokinesis failures we see in cancer cells. These results for the first time define the molecular defects leading to divisional failure in cancer cells.

Making the cut: the chemical biology of cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the last step in the cell cycle, where daughter cells finally separate. It is precisely regulated in both time and space to ensure that each daughter cell receives an equal share of DNA and other cellular materials. Chemical biology approaches have been used very successfully to study the mechanism of cytokinesis. In this review, we discuss the use of small molecule probes to perturb cytokinesis, as well as the role naturally occurring small molecule metabolites such as lipids play during cytokinesis.

Multi-scale mechanics from molecules to morphogenesis

Dynamic mechanical processes shape the embryo and organs during development. Little is understood about the basic physics of these processes, what forces are generated, or how tissues resist or guide those forces during morphogenesis. This review offers an outline of some of the basic principles of biomechanics, provides working examples of biomechanical analyses of developing embryos, and reviews the role of structural proteins in establishing and maintaining the mechanical properties of embryonic tissues. Drawing on examples we highlight the importance of investigating mechanics at multiple scales from milliseconds to hours and from individual molecules to whole embryos. Lastly, we pose a series of questions that will need to be addressed if we are to understand the larger integration of molecular and physical mechanical processes during morphogenesis and organogenesis.

Cell polarity emerges at first cleavage in sea urchin embryos

In protostomes, cell polarity is present after fertilization whereas most deuterostome embryos show minimal polarity during the early cleavages. We now show establishment of cell polarity as early as the first cleavage division in sea urchin embryos. We find, using the apical markers G(M1), integrins, and the aPKC-PAR6 complex, that cells are polarized upon insertion of distinct basolateral membrane at the first division. This early apical-basolateral polarity, similar to that found in much larger cleaving amphibian zygotes, reflects precocious functional epithelial cell polarity. Isolated cleavage blastomeres exhibit polarized actin-dependent fluid phase endocytosis only on the G(M1), integrin, microvillus-containing apical surface. A role for a functional PAR complex in cleavage plane determination was shown with experiments interfering with aPKC activity, which results in several spindle defects and compromised blastula development. These studies suggest that cell and embryonic polarity is established at the first cleavage, mediated in part by the Par complex of proteins, and is achieved by directed insertion of basolateral membrane in the cleavage furrow.

Concurrent cues for cytokinetic furrow induction in animal cells

Animal cells are deformable, yet live together bound into tissues. Consequently, physical perturbations imposed by neighbors threaten to disrupt the spatial coordination of cell cleavage with chromosome segregation during mitosis. Emerging evidence demonstrates that animal cells integrate multiple positional cues during cleavage-furrow induction, perhaps to facilitate error correction. Classical work indicated that the asters provide the stimulus for furrow induction, but recent results implicate the central spindle at least as much. Similarly, although classical work concluded that the stimulus occurs at the cell equator, new evidence shows that asters modulate cortical contractility outside the equator as well. Meanwhile, a newly revealed distinction between stable and dynamic astral microtubules suggests that these subsets might have complementary effects on furrow induction.

Bisphenol A directly targets tubulin to disrupt spindle organization in embryonic and somatic cells

There is increasing concern that animal and human reproduction may be adversely affected by exposure to xenoestrogens that activate estrogen receptors. There is evidence that one such compound, Bisphenol A (BPA), also induces meiotic and mitotic aneuploidy, suggesting that these kinds of molecules may also have effects on cell division. In an effort to understand how Bisphenol A might disrupt cell division, a phenotypic analysis was carried out using sea urchin eggs, whose early embryonic divisions are independent of zygotic transcription. Fertilized Lytechinus pictus eggs exposed to BPA formed multipolar spindles resulting in failed cytokinesis in a dose-dependent, transcriptionally independent manner. By use of novel biotinylated BPA affinity probes to fractionate cell-free extracts, tubulin was identified as a candidate binding protein by mass spectrometry, and BPA promoted microtubule polymerization and centrosome-based microtubule nucleation in vitro but did not appear to display microtubule-stabilizing activity. Treatment of mammalian cells demonstrated that BPA as well as a series of Bisphenol A derivatives induced ectopic spindle pole formation in the absence of centrosome overduplication. Together, these results suggest a novel mechanism by which Bisphenol A affects the nucleation of microtubules, disrupting the tight spatial control associated with normal chromosome segregation, resulting in aneuploidy.

The roles of Ca2+, downstream protein kinases, and oscillatory signaling in regulating fertilization and the activation of development

Reviews in Developmental Biology have covered the pathways that generate the all-important intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) signal at fertilization [Miyazaki, S., Shirakawa, H., Nakada, K., Honda, Y., 1993a. Essential role of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor/Ca(2+) release channel in Ca(2+) waves and Ca(2+) oscillations at fertilization of mammalian eggs. Dev. Biol. 158, 62-78; Runft, L., Jaffe, L., Mehlmann, L., 2002. Egg activation at fertilization: where it all begins. Dev. Biol. 245, 237-254] and the different temporal responses of Ca(2+) in many organisms [Stricker, S., 1999. Comparative biology of calcium signaling during fertilization and egg activation in animals. Dev. Biol. 211, 157-176]. Those reviews raise the importance of identifying how Ca(2+) causes the events of egg activation (EEA) and to what extent these temporal Ca(2+) responses encode developmental information. This review covers recent studies that have analyzed how these Ca(2+) signals are interpreted by specific proteins, and how these proteins regulate various EEA responsible for the onset of development. Many of these proteins are protein kinases (CaMKII, PKC, MPF, MAPK, MLCK) whose activity is directly or indirectly regulated by Ca(2+), and whose amount increases during late oocyte maturation. We cover biochemical progress in defining the signaling pathways between Ca(2+) and the EEA, as well as discuss how oscillatory or multiple Ca(2+) signals are likely to have specific advantages biochemically and/or developmentally. These emerging concepts are put into historical context, emphasizing that key contributions have come from many organisms. The intricate interdependence of Ca(2+), Ca(2+)-dependent proteins, and the EEA raise many new questions for future investigations that will provide insight into the extent to which fertilization-associated signaling has long-range implications for development. In addition, answers to these questions should be beneficial to establishing parameters of egg quality for human and animal IVF, as well as improving egg activation protocols for somatic cell nuclear transfer to generate stem cells and save endangered species.

Regulation of the function of mammalian myosin and its conformational change

It has been known that the phosphorylation of the regulatory light chain, residing at the head/rod junction of the molecule activates the motor activity of smooth muscle and non-muscle conventional myosin (myosin II), and triggers a large conformational change of the molecule from the inhibited folded conformation to the active extended conformation. Recent structural analysis has revealed the structural basis of the inhibition of the motor function of the two heads in the inhibited conformation. On the other hand, recent studies have revealed that a processive unconventional myosin, myosin V, also shows a large change in the conformation from the folded to an extended form and this explains the activation mechanism of myosin V motor activity. These findings suggest the presence of a common scenario for the regulation of motor protein functions.

Distinct pathways for the early recruitment of myosin II and actin to the cytokinetic furrow

Equatorial organization of myosin II and actin has been recognized as a universal event in cytokinesis of animal cells. Current models for the formation of equatorial cortex favor either directional cortical transport toward the equator or localized de novo assembly. However, this process has never been analyzed directly in dividing mammalian cells at a high resolution. Here we applied total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRF-M), coupled with spatial temporal image correlation spectroscopy (STICS) and a new analytical approach termed temporal differential microscopy (TDM), to image the dynamics of myosin II and actin during the assembly of equatorial cortex. Our results indicated distinct and at least partially independent mechanisms for the early equatorial recruitment of myosin and actin filaments. Cortical myosin showed no detectable directional flow during early cytokinesis. In addition to equatorial assembly, we showed that localized inhibition of disassembly contributed to the formation of the equatorial myosin band. In contrast to myosin, actin filaments underwent a striking flux toward the equator. Myosin motor activity was required for the actin flux, but not for actin concentration in the furrow, suggesting that there was a flux-independent, de novo mechanism for actin recruitment along the equator. Our results indicate that cytokinesis involves signals that regulate both assembly and disassembly activities and argue against mechanisms that are coupled to global cortical movements.

Phospholipase C and myosin light chain kinase inhibition define a common step in actin regulation during cytokinesis

Background

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) is required for successful completion of cytokinesis. In addition, both PIP₂ and phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) have been localized to the cleavage furrow of dividing mammalian cells. PLC hydrolyzes PIP₂ to yield diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP₃), which in turn induces calcium (Ca²⁺⁾ release from the ER. Several studies suggest PIP₂ must be hydrolyzed continuously for continued cleavage furrow ingression. The majority of these studies employ the N-substituted maleimide U73122 as an inhibitor of PLC. However, the specificity of U73122 is unclear, as its active group closely resembles the non-specific alkylating agent N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). In addition, the pathway by which PIP₂ regulates cytokinesis remains to be elucidated.

Results

Here we compared the effects of U73122 and the structurally unrelated PLC inhibitor ET-18-OCH₃ (edelfosine) on cytokinesis in crane-fly and Drosophila spermatocytes. Our data show that the effects of U73122 are indeed via PLC because U73122 and ET-18-OCH₃ produced similar effects on cell morphology and actin cytoskeleton organization that were distinct from those caused by NEM. Furthermore, treatment with the myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) inhibitor ML-7 caused cleavage furrow regression and loss of both F-actin and phosphorylated myosin regulatory light chain from the contractile ring in a manner similar to treatment with U73122 and ET-18-OCH₃.

Conclusion

We have used multiple inhibitors to examine the roles of PLC and MLCK, a predicted downstream target of PLC regulation, in cytokinesis. Our results are consistent with a model in which PIP₂ hydrolysis acts via Ca²⁺ to activate myosin via MLCK and thereby control actin dynamics during constriction of the contractile ring.