Mes1 controls the meiosis I to meiosis II transition by distinctly regulating the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome coactivators Fzr1/Mfr1 and Slp1 in fission yeast

Quantitative proteomics and phosphoproteomics profiling of meiotic divisions in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

In eukaryotes, chromosomal DNA is equally distributed to daughter cells during mitosis, whereas the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis. Despite considerable progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate mitosis, there is currently a lack of complete understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating meiosis. Here, we took advantage of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, for which highly synchronous meiosis can be induced, and performed quantitative proteomics and phosphoproteomics analyses to track changes in protein expression and phosphorylation during meiotic divisions. We compared the proteomes and phosphoproteomes of exponentially growing mitotic cells with cells harvested around meiosis I, or meiosis II in strains bearing either the temperature-sensitive pat1-114 allele or conditional ATP analog-sensitive pat1-as2 allele of the Pat1 kinase. Comparing pat1-114 with pat1-as2 also allowed us to investigate the impact of elevated temperature (25 °C versus 34 °C) on meiosis, an issue that sexually reproducing organisms face due to climate change. Using TMTpro 18plex labeling and phosphopeptide enrichment strategies, we performed quantification of a total of 4673 proteins and 7172 phosphosites in S. pombe. We found that the protein level of 2680 proteins and the rate of phosphorylation of 4005 phosphosites significantly changed during progression of S. pombe cells through meiosis. The proteins exhibiting changes in expression and phosphorylation during meiotic divisions were represented mainly by those involved in the meiotic cell cycle, meiotic recombination, meiotic nuclear division, meiosis I, centromere clustering, microtubule cytoskeleton organization, ascospore formation, organonitrogen compound biosynthetic process, carboxylic acid metabolic process, gene expression, and ncRNA processing, among others. In summary, our findings provide global overview of changes in the levels and phosphorylation of proteins during progression of S. pombe cells through meiosis at normal and elevated temperatures, laying the groundwork for further elucidation of the functions and importance of specific proteins and their phosphorylation in regulating meiotic divisions in this yeast.

Tell the Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis: Interplay Between Chromosomes, Cytoskeleton, and Cell Cycle Regulation

Meiosis is a specialized style of cell division conserved in eukaryotes, particularly designed for the production of gametes. A huge number of studies to date have demonstrated how chromosomes behave and how meiotic events are controlled. Yeast substantially contributed to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of meiosis in the past decades. Recently, evidence began to accumulate to draw a perspective landscape showing that chromosomes and microtubules are mutually influenced: microtubules regulate chromosomes, whereas chromosomes also regulate microtubule behaviors. Here we focus on lessons from recent advancement in genetical and cytological studies of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, revealing how chromosomes, cytoskeleton, and cell cycle progression are organized and particularly how these are differentiated in mitosis and meiosis. These studies illuminate that meiosis is strategically designed to fulfill two missions: faithful segregation of genetic materials and production of genetic diversity in descendants through elaboration by meiosis-specific factors in collaboration with general factors.

Modeling the Control of Meiotic Cell Divisions: Entry, Progression, and Exit

Upon nitrogen starvation, Schizosaccharomyces pombe exit the mitotic cell cycle and become irreversibly committed to the completion of meiosis program. Meiotic cell divisions are coordinated with sporulation events to produce haploid spores. In the last few decades, experiments on fission yeast have revealed different molecular players involved in two meiotic cell divisions, meiosis I (MI) and meiosis II (MII). How the MI entry, MI-to-MII transition, and MII exit occur because of the dynamics of the regulatory network is not well understood. In this work, we developed a comprehensive mathematical model of the network that describes the temporal dynamics of meiotic progression. The model accounts for the phenotypes of several experimental data (single and multiple mutations). We demonstrate the control strategy involving multiple feedback loops to yield two successive division cycles. The differential regulation of anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) coactivators and its inhibitors is crucial for the dynamics of both MI-to-MII transition and MII exit. This model generates mechanistic insights that help in further experiments and modeling.

CDK Regulation of Meiosis: Lessons from S. cerevisiae and S. pombe

Meiotic progression requires precise orchestration, such that one round of DNA replication is followed by two meiotic divisions. The order and timing of meiotic events is controlled through the modulation of the phosphorylation state of proteins. Key components of this phospho-regulatory system include cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) and its cyclin regulatory subunits. Over the past two decades, studies in budding and fission yeast have greatly informed our understanding of the role of CDK in meiotic regulation. In this review, we provide an overview of how CDK controls meiotic events in both budding and fission yeast. We discuss mechanisms of CDK regulation through post-translational modifications and changes in the levels of cyclins. Finally, we highlight the similarities and differences in CDK regulation between the two yeast species. Since CDK and many meiotic regulators are highly conserved, the findings in budding and fission yeasts have revealed conserved mechanisms of meiotic regulation among eukaryotes.

The Arabidopsis anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome subunit 8 is required for male meiosis

Faithful chromosome segregation is required for both mitotic and meiotic cell divisions and is regulated by multiple mechanisms including the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), which is the largest known E3 ubiquitin-ligase complex and has been implicated in regulating chromosome segregation in both mitosis and meiosis in animals. However, the role of the APC/C during plant meiosis remains largely unknown. Here, we show that Arabidopsis APC8 is required for male meiosis. We used a combination of genetic analyses, cytology and immunolocalisation to define the function of AtAPC8 in male meiosis. Meiocytes from apc8-1 plants exhibit several meiotic defects including improper alignment of bivalents at metaphase I, unequal chromosome segregation during anaphase II, and subsequent formation of polyads. Immunolocalisation using an antitubulin antibody showed that APC8 is required for normal spindle morphology. We also observed mitotic defects in apc8-1, including abnormal sister chromatid segregation and microtubule morphology. Our results demonstrate that Arabidopsis APC/C is required for meiotic chromosome segregation and that APC/C-mediated regulation of meiotic chromosome segregation is a conserved mechanism among eukaryotes.

The pseudosubstrate inhibitor Acm1 inhibits the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome by combining high-affinity activator binding with disruption of Doc1/Apc10 function

The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) is a large, multisubunit ubiquitin ligase involved in regulation of cell division. APC/C substrate specificity arises from binding of short degron motifs in its substrates to transient activator subunits, Cdc20 and Cdh1. The destruction box (D-box) is the most common APC/C degron and plays a crucial role in substrate degradation by linking the activator to the Doc1/Apc10 subunit of core APC/C to stabilize the active holoenzyme and promote processive ubiquitylation. Degrons are also employed as pseudosubstrate motifs by APC/C inhibitors, and pseudosubstrates must bind their cognate activators tightly to outcompete substrate binding while blocking their own ubiquitylation. Here we examined how APC/C activity is suppressed by the small pseudosubstrate inhibitor Acm1 from budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Mutation of a conserved D-box converted Acm1 into an efficient ABBA (cyclin A, BubR1, Bub1, Acm1) motif-dependent APC/C^Cdh1 substrate in vivo, suggesting that this D-box somehow inhibits APC/C. We then identified a short conserved sequence at the C terminus of the Acm1 D-box that was necessary and sufficient for APC/C inhibition. In several APC/C substrates, the corresponding D-box region proved to be important for their degradation despite poor sequence conservation, redefining the D-box as a 12-amino acid motif. Biochemical analysis suggested that the Acm1 D-box extension inhibits reaction processivity by perturbing the normal interaction with Doc1/Apc10. Our results reveal a simple, elegant mode of pseudosubstrate inhibition that combines high-affinity activator binding with specific disruption of Doc1/Apc10 function in processive ubiquitylation.

Interplay between Phosphatases and the Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome in Mitosis

Accurate division of cells into two daughters is a process that is vital to propagation of life. Protein phosphorylation and selective degradation have emerged as two important mechanisms safeguarding the delicate choreography of mitosis. Protein phosphatases catalyze dephosphorylation of thousands of sites on proteins, steering the cells through establishment of the mitotic phase and exit from it. A large E3 ubiquitin ligase, the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) becomes active during latter stages of mitosis through G1 and marks hundreds of proteins for destruction. Recent studies have revealed the complex interregulation between these two classes of enzymes. In this review, we highlight the direct and indirect mechanisms by which phosphatases and the APC/C mutually influence each other to ensure accurate spatiotemporal and orderly progression through mitosis, with a particular focus on recent insights and conceptual advances.

APC/C: current understanding and future perspectives

The separation of sister chromatids at anaphase, which is regulated by an E3 ubiquitin ligase called the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), is arguably the most important irrevocable event during the cell cycle. The APC/C and cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) are just two of the many significant cell cycle regulators and exert control through ubiquitylation and phosphorylation, respectively. The temporal and spatial regulation of the APC/C is achieved by multiple mechanisms, including phosphorylation, interaction with the structurally related co-activators Cdc20 and Cdh1, loading of distinct E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, binding with inhibitors and differential affinities for various substrates. Since the discovery of APC/C 25 years ago, intensive studies have uncovered many aspects of APC/C regulation, but we are still far from a full understanding of this important cellular machinery. Recent high-resolution cryogenic electron microscopy analysis and reconstitution of the APC/C have greatly advanced our understanding of molecular mechanisms underpinning the enzymatic properties of APC/C. In this review, we will examine the historical background and current understanding of APC/C regulation.

Analysis of Schizosaccharomyces pombe Meiosis

Meiosis is a specialized cell cycle that generates haploid gametes from diploid cells. The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is one of the best model organisms for studying the regulatory mechanisms of meiosis. S. pombe cells, which normally grow in the haploid state, diploidize by conjugation and initiate meiosis when starved for nutrients, especially nitrogen. Following two rounds of chromosome segregation, spore formation takes place. The switch from mitosis to meiosis is controlled by a kinase, Pat1, and an RNA-binding protein, Mei2. Mei2 is also a key factor for meiosis-specific gene expression. Studies on S. pombe have offered insights into cell cycle regulation and chromosome segregation during meiosis. Here we outline the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating the initiation and progression of meiosis, and introduce methods for the study of meiosis in fission yeast.

Fission yeast APC/C activators Slp1 and Fzr1 sequentially trigger two consecutive nuclear divisions during meiosis

In meiosis, two rounds of nuclear division occur consecutively without DNA replication between the divisions. We isolated a fission yeast mutant in which the nucleus divides only once to generate two spores, as opposed to four, in meiosis. In this mutant, we found that the initiation codon of the slp1⁺ gene is converted to ATA, producing a reduced amount of Slp1. As a member of the Fizzy family of anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) activators, Slp1 is essential for vegetative growth; however, the mutant allele shows a phenotype only in meiosis. Slp1 insufficiency delays degradation of maturation-promoting factor at the first meiotic division, and another APC/C activator, Fzr1, which acts late in meiosis, terminates meiosis immediately after the delayed first division to produce two viable spores.

Cuf2 Is a Transcriptional Co-Regulator that Interacts with Mei4 for Timely Expression of Middle-Phase Meiotic Genes

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe cuf2+ gene encodes a nuclear regulator that is required for timely activation and repression of several middle-phase genes during meiotic differentiation. In this study, we sought to gain insight into the mechanism by which Cuf2 regulates meiotic gene expression. Using a chromatin immunoprecipitation approach, we demonstrate that Cuf2 is specifically associated with promoters of both activated and repressed target genes, in a time-dependent manner. In case of the fzr1+ gene whose transcription is positively affected by Cuf2, promoter occupancy by Cuf2 results in a concomitant increased association of RNA polymerase II along its coding region. In marked contrast, association of RNA polymerase II with chromatin decreases when Cuf2 negatively regulates target gene expression such as wtf13+. Although Cuf2 operates through a transcriptional mechanism, it is unable to perform its function in the absence of the Mei4 transcription factor, which is a member of the conserved forkhead protein family. Using coimmunoprecipitation experiments, results showed that Cuf2 is a binding partner of Mei4. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments brought further evidence that an association between Cuf2 and Mei4 occurs in the nucleus. Analysis of fzr1+ promoter regions revealed that two FLEX-like elements, which are bound by the transcription factor Mei4, are required for chromatin occupancy by Cuf2. Together, results reported here revealed that Cuf2 and Mei4 co-regulate the timely expression of middle-phase genes during meiosis.

Virtual Nuclear Envelope Breakdown and Its Regulators in Fission Yeast Meiosis

Ran, a small GTPase, is required for the spindle formation and nuclear envelope (NE) formation. After NE breakdown (NEBD) during mitosis in metazoan cells, the Ran-GTP gradient across the NE is lost and Ran-GTP becomes concentrated around chromatin, thus affecting the stability of microtubules and promoting the assembly of spindle microtubules and segregation of chromosomes. Mitosis in which chromosomes are segregated subsequent to NEBD is called “open mitosis.” In contrast, many fungi undergo a process termed “closed mitosis” in which chromosome segregation and spindle formation occur without NEBD. Although the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe undergoes a closed mitosis, it exhibits a short period during meiosis (anaphase of the second meiosis; called “anaphase II”) when nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins are mixed in the presence of intact NE and nuclear pore complexes (NPC). This “virtual” nuclear envelope breakdown (vNEBD) involves changes in the localization of RanGAP1, an activator of Ran-GTP hydrolysis. Recently, Nup132, a component of the structural core Nup107-160 subcomplex of the NPC, has been shown to be involved in the maintenance of the nuclear cytoplasmic barrier in yeast meiosis. In this review, we highlight the possible roles of RanGAP1 and Nup132 in vNEBD and discuss the biological significance of vNEBD in S. pombe meiosis.

A single cyclin-CDK complex is sufficient for both mitotic and meiotic progression in fission yeast

The dominant model for eukaryotic cell cycle control proposes that cell cycle progression is driven by a succession of CDK complexes with different substrate specificities. However, in fission yeast it has been shown that a single CDK complex generated by the fusion of the Cdc13 cyclin with the CDK protein Cdc2 can drive the mitotic cell cycle. Meiosis is a modified cell cycle programme in which a single S-phase is followed by two consecutive rounds of chromosome segregation. Here we systematically analyse the requirements of the different fission yeast cyclins for meiotic cell cycle progression. We also show that a single Cdc13-Cdc2 complex, in the absence of the other cyclins, can drive the meiotic cell cycle. We propose that qualitatively different CDK complexes are not absolutely required for cell cycle progression either during mitosis or meiosis, and that a single CDK complex can drive both cell cycle programmes.

Functional characterization of Anaphase Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) E3 ubiquitin ligases in tumorigenesis

The Anaphase Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) is a multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin ligase that primarily governs cell cycle progression. APC/C is composed of at least 14 core subunits and recruits its substrates for ubiquitination via one of the two adaptor proteins, Cdc20 or Cdh1, in M or M/early G1 phase, respectively. Furthermore, recent studies have shed light on crucial functions for APC/C in maintaining genomic integrity, neuronal differentiation, cellular metabolism and tumorigenesis. To gain better insight into the in vivo physiological functions of APC/C in regulating various cellular processes, particularly development and tumorigenesis, a number of mouse models of APC/C core subunits, coactivators or inhibitors have been established and characterized. However, due to their essential role in cell cycle regulation, most of the germline knockout mice targeting the APC/C pathway are embryonic lethal, indicating the need for generating conditional knockout mouse models to assess the role in tumorigenesis for each APC/C signaling component in specific tissues. In this review, we will first provide a brief introduction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and the biochemical activities and cellular functions of the APC/C E3 ligase. We will then focus primarily on characterizing genetic mouse models used to understand the physiological roles of each APC/C signaling component in embryogenesis, cell proliferation, development and carcinogenesis. Finally, we discuss future research directions to further elucidate the physiological contributions of APC/C components during tumorigenesis and validate their potentials as a novel class of anti-cancer targets.

The RNA-binding protein Spo5 promotes meiosis II by regulating cyclin Cdc13 in fission yeast

Meiosis comprises two consecutive nuclear divisions, meiosis I and II. Despite this unique progression through the cell cycle, little is known about the mechanisms controlling the sequential divisions. In this study, we carried out a genetic screen to identify factors that regulate the initiation of meiosis II in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We identified mutants deficient in meiosis II progression and repeatedly isolated mutants defective in spo5, which encodes an RNA-binding protein. Using fluorescence microscopy to visualize YFP-tagged protein, we found that spo5 mutant cells precociously lost Cdc13, the major B-type cyclin in fission yeast, before meiosis II. Importantly, the defect in meiosis II was rescued by increasing CDK activity. In wild-type cells, cdc13 transcripts increased during meiosis II, but this increase in cdc13 expression was weaker in spo5 mutants. Thus, Spo5 is a novel regulator of meiosis II that controls the level of cdc13 expression and promotes de novo synthesis of Cdc13. We previously reported that inhibition of Cdc13 degradation is necessary to initiate meiosis II; together with the previous information, the current findings indicate that the dual control of Cdc13 by de novo synthesis and suppression of proteolysis ensures the progression of meiosis II.

Mutually dependent degradation of Ama1p and Cdc20p terminates APC/C ubiquitin ligase activity at the completion of meiotic development in yeast

Background

The execution of meiotic nuclear divisions in S. cerevisiae is regulated by protein degradation mediated by the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) ubiquitin ligase. The correct timing of APC/C activity is essential for normal chromosome segregation. During meiosis, the APC/C is activated by the association of either Cdc20p or the meiosis-specific factor Ama1p. Both Ama1p and Cdc20p are targeted for degradation as cells exit meiosis II with Cdc20p being destroyed by APC/C^Ama1. In this study we investigated how Ama1p is down regulated at the completion of meiosis.

Findings

Here we show that Ama1p is a substrate of APC/C^Cdc20 but not APC/C^Cdh1 in meiotic cells. Cdc20p binds Ama1p in vivo and APC/C^Cdc20 ubiquitylates Ama1p in vitro. Ama1p ubiquitylation requires one of two degradation motifs, a D-box and a “KEN-box” like motif called GxEN. Finally, Ama1p degradation does not require its association with the APC/C via its conserved APC/C binding motifs (C-box and IR) and occurs simultaneously with APC/C^Ama1-mediated Cdc20p degradation.

Conclusions

Unlike the cyclical nature of mitotic cell division, meiosis is a linear pathway leading to the production of quiescent spores. This raises the question of how the APC/C is reset prior to spore germination. This and a previous study revealed that Cdc20p and Ama1p direct each others degradation via APC/C-dependent degradation. These findings suggest a model that the APC/C is inactivated by mutual degradation of the activators. In addition, these results support a model in which Ama1p and Cdc20p relocate to the substrate address within the APC/C cavity prior to degradation.

Cuf2 boosts the transcription of APC/C activator Fzr1 to terminate the meiotic division cycle

The number of nuclear divisions in meiosis is strictly limited to two. Although the precise mechanism remains unknown, this seems to be achieved by adjusting the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) activity to degrade cyclin. Here, we describe a fission yeast cuf2 mutant that enters into a third nuclear division cycle, represented by ectopic spindle assembly and abnormal chromosome segregation. Cuf2 is a meiotic transcription factor, and its critical target is fzr1(+)/mfr1(+), which encodes a meiotic APC/C activator. fzr1Δ also enters a third nuclear division. Thus, Cuf2 ensures termination of the M-phase cycle by boosting Fzr1 expression to generate functional gametes.

Sequential steps in DNA replication are inhibited to ensure reduction of ploidy in meiosis

Reduction in ploidy in meiosis is assumed to be due to a block to the licensing step (Mcm helicase association with replication origins). When the licensing block is subverted, replication is still only partial due to inefficient elongation replication forks. This might constitute an additional level of replication regulation.

Meiosis involves two successive rounds of chromosome segregation without an intervening S phase. Exit from meiosis I is distinct from mitotic exit, in that replication origins are not licensed by Mcm2-7 chromatin binding, but spindle disassembly occurs during a transient interphase-like state before meiosis II. The absence of licensing is assumed to explain the block to DNA replication, but this has not been formally tested. Here we attempt to subvert this block by expressing the licensing control factors Cdc18 and Cdt1 during the interval between meiotic nuclear divisions. Surprisingly, this leads only to a partial round of DNA replication, even when these factors are overexpressed and effect clear Mcm2-7 chromatin binding. Combining Cdc18 and Cdt1 expression with modulation of cyclin-dependent kinase activity, activation of Dbf4-dependent kinase, or deletion of the Spd1 inhibitor of ribonucleotide reductase has little additional effect on the extent of DNA replication. Single-molecule analysis indicates this partial round of replication results from inefficient progression of replication forks, and thus both initiation and elongation replication steps may be inhibited in late meiosis. In addition, DNA replication or damage during the meiosis I–II interval fails to arrest meiotic progress, suggesting absence of checkpoint regulation of meiosis II entry.

Evolution and function of the mitotic checkpoint

The mitotic checkpoint evolved to prevent cell division when chromosomes have not established connections with the chromosome segregation machinery. Many of the fundamental molecular principles that underlie the checkpoint, its spatiotemporal activation, and its timely inactivation have been uncovered. Most of these are conserved in eukaryotes, but important differences between species exist. Here we review current concepts of mitotic checkpoint activation and silencing. Guided by studies in model organisms and our phylogenomics analysis of checkpoint constituents and their functional domains and motifs, we highlight ancient and taxa-specific aspects of the core checkpoint modules in the context of mitotic checkpoint function.

OSD1 promotes meiotic progression via APC/C inhibition and forms a regulatory network with TDM and CYCA1;2/TAM

Cell cycle control is modified at meiosis compared to mitosis, because two divisions follow a single DNA replication event. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) promote progression through both meiosis and mitosis, and a central regulator of their activity is the APC/C (Anaphase Promoting Complex/Cyclosome) that is especially required for exit from mitosis. We have shown previously that OSD1 is involved in entry into both meiosis I and meiosis II in Arabidopsis thaliana; however, the molecular mechanism by which OSD1 controls these transitions has remained unclear. Here we show that OSD1 promotes meiotic progression through APC/C inhibition. Next, we explored the functional relationships between OSD1 and the genes known to control meiotic cell cycle transitions in Arabidopsis. Like osd1, cyca1;2/tam mutation leads to a premature exit from meiosis after the first division, while tdm mutants perform an aberrant third meiotic division after normal meiosis I and II. Remarkably, while tdm is epistatic to tam, osd1 is epistatic to tdm. We further show that the expression of a non-destructible CYCA1;2/TAM provokes, like tdm, the entry into a third meiotic division. Finally, we show that CYCA1;2/TAM forms an active complex with CDKA;1 that can phosphorylate OSD1 in vitro. We thus propose that a functional network composed of OSD1, CYCA1;2/TAM, and TDM controls three key steps of meiotic progression, in which OSD1 is a meiotic APC/C inhibitor.

In the life cycle of sexual organisms, a specialized cell division—meiosis—reduces the number of chromosomes from two sets (2n, diploid) to one set (n, haploid), while fertilization restores the original chromosome number. Meiosis reduces ploidy because it consists of two cellular divisions following a single DNA replication. In this study, we analyze the function of a group of genes that collectively controls the entry into the first meiotic division, the entry into the second meiotic division, and the exit from meiosis in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. We revealed a complex regulation network that controls these three key transitions.

Acm1 contributes to nuclear positioning by inhibiting Cdh1-substrate interactions

The anaphase-promoting complex (APC) is tightly regulated during cell division, often by pseudosubstrate binding to its coactivators Cdh1 and Cdc20. Budding yeast Acm1 is a Cdh1 pseudosubstrate inhibitor whose biological function is unknown. We show here that cells lacking Acm1 have defects in nuclear positioning and spindle morphology during mitosis. However, Cdh1 substrates are not destabilized in the absence of Acm1 and expression of inactive Cdh1 mutants that retain substrate binding is sufficient for the acm1 phenotype. We conclude that Acm1 is not required to inhibit APC(Cdh1) activity but rather prevents untimely Cdh1-substrate interactions. We further provide evidence suggesting that the substrate primarily responsible for the acm1 phenotype is the bud neck-localized kinase, Hsl1. Our results imply that at least some coactivator-substrate interactions require regulation. Several unrelated APC pseudosubstrates have been identified in diverse eukaryotes and their ability to simultaneously inhibit enzymatic activity and substrate binding may partly explain why this regulatory mechanism has been selected repeatedly during evolution.