Variability in scoring the Hachinski Ischaemic Score

Cambridge Cognitive Examination and Hachinski Ischemic Score as predictors of MRI confirmed pathology in dementia: A cross-sectional study

AIMS AND BACKGROUND

Dementia is diagnosed through a combination of clinical assessment, cognitive assessment tools and neuroimaging. The aim of this retrospective, naturalistic study was to explore the association between the clinical assessment tools used in a memory clinic and the findings of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans in patients with dementia.

METHODS

Data were collected through routine clinical practice for all patients assessed at a memory assessment clinic in East Sussex, UK. Included patients had an MRI scan and received a formal diagnosis of dementia. Multinomial logistic regression was used to investigate the associations between atrophy on MRI with age, gender, Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG) and Hachinski Ischemic Score (HIS). Ordinal logistic regression was used to study the associations between vascular findings on MRI with age, gender, CAMCOG and HIS. Because of the distribution of HIS scores a cut-off of 1 or greater was used in the regression analysis.

RESULTS

Male gender was associated with an increased likelihood of moderate atrophy (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 1.99, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.04-3.82), severe atrophy (RRR = 3.04, 95% CI = 1.38-6.68) and regional atrophy (RRR = 2.25, 95% CI = 1.26-4.00) on MRI. An increase of one point on the CAMCOG was associated with a decreased risk of regional atrophy (RRR = 0.98, 95% CI = 0.96-1.00) on MRI. There were no significant associations between age, or HIS, and atrophy on MRI. An increase in age of one year was associated with an increase in severity of vascular pathology reported on MRI (OR = 1.08, 95% CI = 1.05-1.12). Male gender was associated with reduced severity of vascular pathology reported on MRI (OR = 0.53, 95% CI = 0.36-0.78). There were no associations between CAMCOG, or HIS, and vascular pathology on MRI.

DISCUSSION

Our data show that CAMCOG was associated with MRI findings of regional atrophy and vascular pathology was greater in older patients. We highlight the importance of using a multi-modal approach to dementia diagnosis.

Alexithymia in people with subjective cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, and mild Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Behavioral and psychological symptoms are widely accepted as accelerator factors in progression to dementia. Although alexithymia is closely related to normal aging process and poor neurocognitive performance, alexithymia has not been included in these symptoms yet.

AIMS

Here, we aimed to investigate alexithymia features in people with prominent clinical memory complaints.

METHODS

The participants (n = 82) were classified into three groups as: subjective cognitive decline (n = 30), mild cognitive impairment (n = 27), and mild Alzheimer's disease (n = 25) after Mini-Mental State Examination, Clinical Dementia Rating Scale, neuropsychological test battery, Geriatric Depression Scale, and Hachinski Ischemic Scale. All participants were assessed with 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale.

RESULTS

The patients with mild Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment have significantly greater alexithymia features than individuals with subjective cognitive decline in Toronto Alexithymia Scale (p < 0.05 for all). The alexithymia features in patients with mild Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment did not significantly differ (p > 0.05, for all).

DISCUSSION

People who have objective cognitive decline seem to have more alexithymia features than people with subjective cognitive decline. Moreover, alexithymia features seem to be similar in people mild Alzheimer's disease and in mild cognitive impairment.

CONCLUSION

Alexithymia might be an important searching domain of behavioral-psychological symptoms in people with cognitive problems beyond aging.

Does plasma phoenixin level associate with cognition? Comparison between subjective memory complaint, mild cognitive impairment, and mild Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alteration in energy expenditure or metabolism is the most accused risk issue for the onset and for the course of neurodegenerative cognitive disorders. Neuropeptides are suggested to be related with learning and memory. Phoenixin (PNX) is the most recently reported neuropeptide and we aimed to compare the plasma level in people with subjective memory complaints, patients with mild cognitive impairment, and mild Alzheimer's disease (AD).

METHODS

Ninety two participants enrolled in the study. After screening tests, all participants were assessed with a neuropsychological battery for further cognitive evaluations. We used ELISA kit to assay the level of Human PNX.

RESULTS

Patients with AD were significantly older than people in subjective memory complaint group (p = 0.02). There was no significant difference between groups according to gender (p = 0.435). Mean plasma PNX level was not significantly different between groups (p = 0.279). Mean plasma PNX level in MCI group was positively correlated with BMI (r = 0.402 and p = 0.028), serum HDL level (r = 0.454 and p = 0.012), blood systolic pressure (r = 0.428 and p = 0.018) and negatively correlated with logical memory (r=-0.335 and p=0.031). The mean plasma PNX level was positively correlated with immediate recall in subjective memory complaint group (r = 0.417 and p = 0.034).

CONCLUSION

This study is the first studying the association of plasma PNX level and cognitive complaints or decline. The knowledge about the role, interaction, and physiological functions of PNX is lacking. Lower plasma PNX level might be important in prodromal stages as MCI and the predictive role of PNX should be investigated in further studies.

The Hachinski ischemic scale and cognition: the influence of ethnicity

OBJECTIVE

cardiovascular burden is considered a risk factor for the development of cognitive dysfunction and dementia. While this link is well established in the literature, implementing this work in primary care settings remains a challenge. The goal of this study is to examine the utility of the Hachinski Ischemic Scale (HIS) in identifying cognitive dysfunction and diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in an ethnically diverse sample.

METHODS

data were analysed on 517 participants (211 Mexican Americans and 306 non-Hispanic Whites) recruited from Project FRONTIER, a study of rural health. Neuropsychological measures were utilised to assess for cognitive functioning.

RESULTS

among non-Hispanic Whites, HIS scores were significantly related to poorer performance on tasks of global cognition [B (SE) = -0.13 (0.06), P = 0.02], immediate memory [B (SE) = -0.85 (0.26), P < 0.001], attention [B (SE) = -1.6 (0.36), P < 0.001] and executive functioning [B (SE) = 0.46 (0.12), P < 0.001], and significantly predicted diagnosis of MCI [odds ratio (OR) = 1.4; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.2-1.6]. For Mexican Americans, HIS scores were significantly related to immediate memory [B (SE) = -0.78 (0.28), P = 0.01], attention [B (SE) = -0.74 (0.36), P = 0.04] and executive functioning [B (SE) = 0.37 (0.14), P = 0.01]; however, HIS scores were not significantly related to diagnosis of MCI in Mexican Americans (OR = 1.2, 95% CI = 0.96-1.4, P = 0.116).

CONCLUSION

HIS scores were related to cognitive functioning; however, these results differed by ethnicity. It is possible that these findings indicate that vascular factors may increase risk for MCI among non-Hispanic Whites but not for Mexican Americans. These findings are consistent with past research that suggests risk factors for MCI may differ by ethnicity.

[Impact of vascular pathology on survival times of 173 dementia patients--Hachinski's ischemic score as a predictive tool for clinical purposes]

Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia still may be looked upon as distinct nosologic entities, representing the two main etiologic categories of senile dementia. However, rather recent findings suggest a comorbidity of neurodegenerative and ischemic pathology in a majority of dementia cases in later life. The effect of the vascular pathology on the survival time was studied in 173 dementia outpatients. For 147 patients with complete datasets, we were able to gain information concerning their survival time. As an indicator of cerebrovascular morbidity the 18-point ischemic scale of Hachinski (HIS) was correlated with the survival time. Thus, we did not use the HIS for its original purpose to differentiate between degenerative and vascular dementia, but to roughly evaluate the cerebrovascular impact in a continuum model. Using the Cox model we calculated mortality risks for every point on the HIS. We found a Cox hazard ratio of 1.038 for each supplementary point on the HIS, which equals a 3.8% higher relative mortality risk. The result misses significance (p=0.092), but indicates a clear tendency towards a shortening of survival time by vascular comorbidity. Future prospective studies should integrate brain imaging to further corroborate our findings.

Measuring clinical practice

The goals of this paper are to review techniques for measuring clinical practice within healthcare professions and to discuss possible applications of these techniques to primary care optometry. A review of the literature suggests a lack of systematic research investigating standards of clinical practice within optometry. It is argued that evidence-based research to determine the content of typical optometric eye examinations would be valuable for several reasons: to evaluate the service provided to the public by the profession; setting priorities and assessing the outcomes of continuous education and training; to influence governmental and professional policy decisions; National Health Service General Ophthalmic Services issues; the equitable management of clinicolegal matters and consumer complaints; setting appropriate professional guidelines and developing undergraduate training. Evidence-based studies within other healthcare professions have evaluated the content of clinical consultations. The literature reviewed reveals three main approaches: (1) abstraction of medical records, (2) use of clinical vignettes and (3) use of standardized patients (SPs) who present unannounced to clinics. In this review, we compare and contrast the use of these different methods in assessing the content of clinical consultations. It is clear from the literature reviewed that the use of SPs is the 'gold standard' methodology. Clinical vignettes can also provide useful data, especially if computerized.

A Substudy Protocol of the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial Assessing Cognitive Decline and Dementia Incidence (HYVET-COG)

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Randomised, controlled trials and population studies have suggested a link between hypertension and the development of dementia (vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease) although the results are not conclusive. The very elderly are at highest risk for both hypertension and dementia but have been underrepresented in studies to date. The Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial (HYVET), an international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of antihypertensive medication for those > or =80 years of age, is currently underway. The protocol for the assessment of cognitive decline and detection of incident dementia cases is described in this article. The objective of this protocol is to determine whether treatment of hypertension in this very elderly group affects the incidence of dementia and decline in cognitive function during the period of the HYVET trial.

METHODS

Cognitive function in all HYVET trial participants is assessed at baseline and annually thereafter using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). An MMSE score that decreases more than three points per year or decreases to <24 prompts further investigation for possible incident dementia. This includes use of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV criteria, the modified Hachinski scale and CT scanning. In cases where a CT scan cannot be obtained the full Hachinski scale is used. Additional information is provided when available from the clock drawing test and Geriatric Depression Scale. Data are also gathered from all trial participants with regard to education, blood pressure, alcohol use, co-morbidities and concomitant treatments. At the end of the trial, changes in cognitive function and incident dementia cases will be compared in those receiving active treatment (indapamide slow-release +/- perindopril) and those receiving matching placebo.

RESULTS

The protocol has been applied successfully and the data collection phase is underway.

DISCUSSION

Previous population studies have been unable to study antihypertensive use in a controlled manner and randomised, controlled trials suggest a positive or mixed picture regarding an association between use of antihypertensive therapy and reduction in incident cognitive decline and/or dementia. No such trial has yet been performed exclusively in subjects > or =80 years of age with hypertension. The HYVET trial is placebo controlled and while investigating the cardiovascular effect of treatment also assesses cognitive function and quality of life in both the placebo and actively treated arms of the trial. The HYVET cognitive substudy trial (HYVET-COG) design has been successfully applied and the instruments chosen appear to be appropriate, valid and pragmatic.

CONCLUSION

HYVET-COG provides the first opportunity to examine the effect of antihypertensive treatment on incident dementia in a high-risk very elderly population.

Neuropsychological prediction of conversion to dementia from questionable dementia: statistically significant but not yet clinically useful

BACKGROUND

Verbal memory impairment, one of the earliest signs of Alzheimer's disease (AD), may help identify people with cognitive impairment, insufficient for a diagnosis of dementia (questionable dementia: QD), at risk of developing AD. Other cognitive parameters have been found that may indicate which people with QD will go on to develop dementia. Nevertheless, some researchers have reported only partial success in differentiating between mild AD and age related cognitive impairment.

OBJECTIVES

To discover if there are early, pre-clinical cognitive markers that could help identify patients attending our memory clinic who were at risk of developing dementia.

METHODS

Multidisciplinary assessment of a consecutive sample of 195 patients with QD seen in a National Health Service hospital outpatient clinic; 135 seen for a mean follow up of 24.5 months.

RESULTS

Conversion rate to dementia was 27.4% (37 of 135). A diagnosis of probable or possible AD was made in 15.6% (21 of 135) of cases. Despite statistically significant differences in some cognitive tasks between those who did and those who did not go on to dement, Cox regression analyses failed to improve prediction rates markedly above base rates and were unstable.

CONCLUSION

A large number of studies claim good prediction of conversion to dementia using cognitive test scores. Although this study produced similarly good sensitivity and specificity values, proper consideration of the statistical analyses and their clinical significance suggested that these prediction methods are currently too imprecise for clinical use. Use of cognitive indicators combined with neuroradiological, neuropathological, and genetic factors for predicting conversion to dementia might prove more reliable but may be beyond the scope of many geriatric services.

The C677T mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene and vascular dementia

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association between the C677T mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene and vascular dementia in Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi Jews.

DESIGN

A case-control study.

SETTING

Nursing homes in Jerusalem, Israel.

PARTICIPANTS

Two hundred fifty nine Jewish people of Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi origin, older than age 70, who have vascular dementia (VD) (n = 85), Alzheimer's disease (AD) (n = 92), and who are cognitively intact (n = 82) with no clinical evidence of atherosclerotic vascular disease.

MEASUREMENTS

The frequencies of the mutant allele (T allele) and homozygotes for the C677T MTHFR mutation (T/T genotype). The total plasma homocysteine (tHCT) level in 75 subjects.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in the frequencies of the T/T genotype or T allele among VD, AD, and cognitively intact older people of the same ethnic origin (0.15, 0.19, 0.25 T/T genotype and 0.42, 0.46, 0.47 T allele in Ashkenazi; 0.08, 0.06, 0.10 T/T genotype and 0.28, 0.32, 0.33 T allele in non-Ashkenazi with VD and AD, and in cognitively intact older people, respectively). The relative risk of VD associated with the T/T genotype versus the C/C genotype was 0.62 (95% CI, 0.19-1.19) in Ashkenazi and 0.65 (95% CI, 0.11-3.7) in non-Ashkenazi, respectively. The relative risk of AD associated with the T/T genotype was 0.85 (95% CI, 0.29-2.45) in Ashkenazi and 0.62 (95% CI, 0.1-4.3) in non-Ashkenazi, respectively. The frequencies of mutant homozygotes and allele were significantly higher in Ashkenazi than in non-Ashkenazi Jews (19.9% vs 7.5% T/T genotype, chi2 = 6.2, P = .01, 0.45 vs 0.31 T allele, chi2 = 9.77, P = .002 in Ashkenazi vs non-Ashkenazi, respectively). There were no differences in mean tHCT concentration among VD, AD, and cognitively intact older people.

CONCLUSIONS

The MTHFR C677T is not associated with an increased risk of vascular dementia or Alzheimer's disease. The frequency of the mutation is significantly higher in Ashkenazi compared with non-Ashkenazi Jews.

Vascular dementia: a contemporary review of epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment

The past decade has seen a renewed interest in vascular dementia. Key epidemiologic studies have examined the prevalence, incidence, course and risk factors of vascular dementia. New classification systems have been developed to improve the reliability of the diagnosis, and there have been advances in diagnostic methodology, such as neuroimaging and neuropsychological assessment. New treatments for vascular dementia are being developed to protect the brain from cerebral ischemia and to limit progression of cognitive impairment. Diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia remain to be validated by carefully designed, systematic, clinicopathologic study. Once such criteria are validated, meaningful study of subgroups of vascular dementia can be explored. Until the relationship between vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease is better defined, the nosology for vascular dementia may be defined best as dementia associated with stroke.

Vascular dementia: dead or alive?

The term 'Vascular Dementia' remains popular as a diagnostic entity, since it encompasses a variety of vascular pathologies. This is in stark contrast to many clinical classificatory systems that weight their definitions strongly towards stroke alone. A diagnosis of vascular dementia is complicated by compounding factors that reduce both the validity and specificity of diagnostic systems. This review highlights some of the problems faced in epidemiological, clinical, neuropathological and radiological studies attempting to define a clear-cut syndrome of dementia associated with cerebrovascular disease. The role of non-stroke ischaemia is also discussed. It is concluded that the term vascular dementia may have outlived its usefulness as a valid concept; alternative approaches are suggested.

Vascular dementia

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