Tissue engineering of human bladder

Strategies of Bladder Reconstruction after Partial or Radical Cystectomy for Bladder Cancer

The standard strategy is to reconstruct bladder by use of bowel segments as material in bladder cancer with radical cystectomy clinically. Both natural derived and non natural derived materials are investigated in bladder reconstruction. Studies on mechanical bladder, bladder transplantation and bladder xenotransplantation are currently limited although heart and kidney transplantation or xenotransplantation are successful to a certain extent, and bone prostheses are applied in clinical contexts. Earlier limited number of studies associated with bladder xenograft from animals to humans were not particular promising in results. Although there have been investigations on pig to human cardiac xenotransplantation with CRISPR Cas9 gene editing, the CRISPR Cas technique is not yet widely researched in porcine bladder related gene editing for the potential of human bladder replacement for bladder cancer. The advancement of technologies such as gene editing, bioprinting and induced pluripotent stem cells allow further research into partial or whole bladder replacement strategies. Porcine bladder is suggested as a potential source material for bladder reconstruction due to its alikeness to human bladder. Challenges that exist with all these approaches need to be overcome. This paper aims to review gene editing technology such as the CRISPR Cas systems as tools in bladder reconstruction, bladder xenotransplantation and hybrid bladder with technologies of induced pluripotent stem cells and genome editing, bioprinting for bladder replacement for bladder reconstruction and to restore normal bladder control function after cystectomy for bladder cancer.

Pericardial bioscaffold coated with ECM gels and urothelial cells for the repair of a rabbit urinary bladder defect

Repair of damaged or faulty complex modular organs such as the urinary bladder is a current clinical challenge. The design of constructs for reconstructive urological surgery can draw advantage from the bioactivity of natural extracellular matrix (ECM) bioscaffolds, as well as the activity provided by cells seeded into constructs. Considering these benefits, this work compares the performance of pericardial ECM bioscaffolds and constructs seeded with gel-supported urothelial cells in the repair of urinary bladder defects in rabbits. The bioscaffolds considered in this study are of porcine (pM) and bovine (bM) origin and exhibited a residual composition that confers bioactivity in mesh presentation. Coating an ECM gel on the bioscaffolds promoted the adhesion and viability of urothelial cells. Repairing a full-thickness urinary bladder defect in a rabbit model with the bioscaffolds and constructs resulted in the integration with the host bladder; meanwhile, bladder volumetric capacity was promoted using bM and constructs. Although no contribution of gel/cell seeding to the failure of mechanical properties of the urinary neobladder was observed, this seeding technique is suitable for integration with different strategies to engineer constructs for urinary bladder reconstructive surgery.

Pediatric bladder tissue engineering: Where have we been and where do we go next?

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to (a) provide a concise overview of early clinical trials in bladder tissue engineering and the associated challenges, (b) evaluate significant advancements over the past 15 years in addressing key limitations in angiogenesis, scaffolding, cell sourcing, and immunomodulation, and (c) explore the individual and synergistic contributions of each domain toward the development of a viable engineered solution.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant papers for this narrative review were selected through a PubMed search for "bladder tissue engineering" studies published between 01/01/2009 and 12/31/2024, as well as earlier clinical trials that predate this period.

RESULTS

Along with reviewing four major clinical trials, this review highlights nearly 20 distinct studies that showcase progress in the critical domains of angiogenesis, scaffolding, cell sourcing, and immunomodulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Are we close to developing an off-the-shelf bladder substitute? Not yet. Current efforts are focused on addressing two major knowledge gaps: (a) the lack of testing in clinically relevant disease models and (b) the need for a more comprehensive understanding of engineered tissue physiology.

PVA-Based Electrospun Materials-A Promising Route to Designing Nanofiber Mats with Desired Morphological Shape-A Review

Poly(vinyl alcohol) is one of the most attractive polymers with a wide range of uses because of its water solubility, biocompatibility, low toxicity, good mechanical properties, and relatively low cost. This review article focuses on recent advances in poly(vinyl alcohol) electrospinning and summarizes parameters of the process (voltage, distance, flow rate, and collector), solution (molecular weight and concentration), and ambient (humidity and temperature) in order to comprehend the influence on the structural, mechanical, and chemical properties of poly(vinyl alcohol)-based electrospun matrices. The importance of poly(vinyl alcohol) electrospinning in biomedical applications is emphasized by exploring a literature review on biomedical applications including wound dressings, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and biosensors. The study also highlights a new promising area of particles formation through the electrospraying of poly(vinyl alcohol). The limitations and advantages of working with different poly(vinyl alcohol) matrices are reviewed, and some recommendations for the future are made to advance this field of study.

Autologous Endothelial Progenitor Cells and Bioactive Factors Improve Bladder Regeneration

Insufficient vascularization is still a challenge that impedes bladder tissue engineering and results in unsatisfied smooth muscle regeneration. Since bladder regeneration is a complex articulated process, the aim of this study is to investigate whether combining multiple pathways by exploiting a combination of biomaterials, cells, and bioactive factors, contributes to the improvements of smooth muscle regeneration and vascularization in tissue-engineered bladder. Autologous endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and bladder smooth muscle cells (BSMCs) are cultured and incorporated into our previously prepared porcine bladder acellular matrix (BAM) for bladder augmentation in rabbits. Simultaneously, exogenous vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB) mixed with Matrigel were injected around the implanted cells-BAM complex. In the results, compared with control rabbits received bladder augmentation with porcine BAM seeded with BSMCs, the experimental animals showed significantly improved smooth muscle regeneration and vascularization, along with more excellent functional recovery of tissue-engineered bladder, due to the additional combination of autologous EPCs and bioactive factors, including VEGF and PDGF-BB. Furthermore, cell tracking suggested that the seeded EPCs could be directly involved in neovascularization. Therefore, it may be an effective method to combine multiple pathways for tissue-engineering urinary bladder.

Decellularized extracellular matrix and silk fibroin-based hybrid biomaterials: A comprehensive review on fabrication techniques and tissue-specific applications

Biomaterials play a fundamental role in tissue engineering by providing biochemical and physical cues that influence cellular fate and matrix development. Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) as a biomaterial is distinguished by its abundant composition of matrix proteins, such as collagen, elastin, fibronectin, and laminin, as well as glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans. However, the mechanical properties of only dECM-based constructs may not always meet tissue-specific requirements. Recent advancements address this challenge by utilizing hybrid biomaterials that harness the strengths of silk fibroin (SF), which contributes the necessary mechanical properties, while dECM provides essential cellular cues for in vitro studies and tissue regeneration. This review discusses emerging trends in developing such biopolymer blends, aiming to synergistically combine the advantages of SF and dECM through optimal concentrations and desired cross-linking density. We focus on different fabrication techniques and cross-linking methods that have been utilized to fabricate various tissue-engineered hybrid constructs. Furthermore, we survey recent applications of such biomaterials for the regeneration of various tissues, including bone, cartilage, trachea, bladder, vascular graft, heart, skin, liver, and other soft tissues. Finally, the trajectory and prospects of the constructs derived from this blend in the tissue engineering field have been summarized, highlighting their potential for clinical translation.

3D Printed Materials for Combating Antimicrobial Resistance

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a rapidly growing technology with a significant capacity for translational applications in both biology and medicine. 3D-printed living and non-living materials are being widely tested as a potential replacement for conventional solutions for testing and combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The precise control of cells and their microenvironment, while simulating the complexity and dynamics of an in vivo environment, provides an excellent opportunity to advance the modeling and treatment of challenging infections and other health conditions. 3D-printing models the complicated niches of microbes and host-pathogen interactions, and most importantly, how microbes develop resistance to antibiotics. In addition, 3D-printed materials can be applied to testing and delivering antibiotics. Here, we provide an overview of 3D printed materials and biosystems and their biomedical applications, focusing on ever increasing AMR. Recent applications of 3D printing to alleviate the impact of AMR, including developed bioprinted systems, targeted bacterial infections, and tested antibiotics are presented.

Urinary Bladder Patch Made with Decellularized Vein Scaffold Seeded with Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells: Model in Rabbits

BACKGROUND

To evaluate tissue regeneration of the urinary bladder after the implantation of a decellularized vein sown with autologous adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASC) on luminal surfaces.

METHODS

New Zealand rabbits (n = 10) were distributed in two groups: Group Bioscaffold alone (G1)-decellularized vena cava (1 cm2) was implanted, and Group Bioscaffold plus ACSs (G2)-decellularized vena cava (1 cm2) containing ASCs were implanted. ASCs were expanded, characterized, and maintained for one week in culture with a decellularized vein scaffold. The implants were performed under general anesthesia using a continuous suture pattern. Afterward, 21 d (day) specimens were collected and analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) histology and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

RESULTS

The integrity of the urinary bladder was maintained in both groups. A superior regenerative process was observed in the G2 group, compared to the G1 group. We observed a greater urothelial epithelialization and maturity of the mucosa and submucosa fibroblasts. Furthermore, SEM demonstrated a notable amount of urothelial villus in the G2 group.

CONCLUSION

Decellularized vena cava scaffolds were able to maintain the integrity of the urinary bladder in the proposed model. In addition, ASCs accelerated the regenerative process development, observed primarily by the new urothelial epithelization and the maturity of mucosa and submucosa fibroblasts.

Remodeling of extracellular matrix in the urinary bladder of paraplegic rats results in increased compliance and delayed fiber recruitment 16 weeks after spinal cord injury

The ability of the urinary bladder to maintain low intravesical pressures while storing urine is key in ensuring proper organ function and highlights the key role that tissue mechanics plays in the lower urinary tract. Loss of supraspinal neuronal connections to the bladder after spinal cord injury can lead to remodeling of the structure of the bladder wall, which may alter its mechanical characteristics. In this study, we investigate if the morphology and mechanical properties of the bladder extracellular matrix are altered in rats 16 weeks after spinal cord injury as compared to animals who underwent sham surgery. We measured and quantified the changes in bladder geometry and mechanical behavior using histological analysis, tensile testing, and constitutive modeling. Our results suggest bladder compliance is increased in paraplegic animals 16 weeks post-injury. Furthermore, constitutive modeling showed that increased distensibility was driven by an increase in collagen fiber waviness, which altered the distribution of fiber recruitment during loading. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The ability of the urinary bladder to store urine under low pressure is key in ensuring proper organ function. This highlights the important role that mechanics plays in the lower urinary tract. Loss of control of neurologic connection to the bladder from spinal cord injury can lead to changes of the structure of the bladder wall, resulting in altered mechanical characteristics. We found that the bladder wall's microstructure in rats 16 weeks after spinal cord injury is more compliant than in healthy animals. This is significant since it is the longest time post-injury analyzed, to date. Understanding the extreme remodeling capabilities of the bladder in pathological conditions is key to inform new possible therapies.

Application of biomaterials and tissue engineering in bladder regeneration

The primary functions of the bladder are storing urine under low and stable pressure and micturition. Various forms of trauma, tumors, and iatrogenic injuries can cause the loss of or reduce bladder function or capacity. If such damage is not treated in time, it will eventually lead to kidney damage and can even be life-threatening in severe cases. The emergence of tissue engineering technology has led to the development of more possibilities for bladder repair and reconstruction, in which the selection of scaffolds is crucial. In recent years, a growing number of tissue-engineered bladder scaffolds have been constructed. Therefore, this paper will discuss the development of tissue-engineered bladder scaffolds and will further analyze the limitations of and challenges encountered in bladder reconstruction.

Biomaterials assisted reconstructive urology: The pursuit of an implantable bioengineered neo-urinary bladder

Urinary bladder is a dynamic organ performing complex physiological activities. Together with ureters and urethra, it forms the lower urinary tract that facilitates urine collection, low-pressure storage, and volitional voiding. However, pathological disorders are often liable to cause irreversible damage and compromise the normal functionality of the bladder, necessitating surgical intervention for a reconstructive procedure. Non-urinary autologous grafts, primarily derived from gastrointestinal tract, have long been the gold standard in clinics to augment or to replace the diseased bladder tissue. Unfortunately, such treatment strategy is commonly associated with several clinical complications. In absence of an optimal autologous therapy, a biomaterial based bioengineered platform is an attractive prospect revolutionizing the modern urology. Predictably, extensive investigative research has been carried out in pursuit of better urological biomaterials, that overcome the limitations of conventional gastrointestinal graft. Against the above backdrop, this review aims to provide a comprehensive and one-stop update on different biomaterial-based strategies that have been proposed and explored over the past 60 years to restore the dynamic function of the otherwise dysfunctional bladder tissue. Broadly, two unique perspectives of bladder tissue engineering and total alloplastic bladder replacement are critically discussed in terms of their status and progress. While the former is pivoted on scaffold mediated regenerative medicine; in contrast, the latter is directed towards the development of a biostable bladder prosthesis. Together, these routes share a common aspiration of designing and creating a functional equivalent of the bladder wall, albeit, using fundamentally different aspects of biocompatibility and clinical needs. Therefore, an attempt has been made to systematically analyze and summarize the evolution of various classes as well as generations of polymeric biomaterials in urology. Considerable emphasis has been laid on explaining the bioengineering methodologies, pre-clinical and clinical outcomes. Some of the unaddressed challenges, including vascularization, innervation, hollow 3D prototype fabrication and urinary encrustation, have been highlighted that currently delay the successful commercial translation. More importantly, the rapidly evolving and expanding concepts of bioelectronic medicine are discussed to inspire future research efforts towards the further advancement of the field. At the closure, crucial insights are provided to forge the biomaterial assisted reconstruction as a long-term therapeutic strategy in urological practice for patients' care.

Three-Dimensional Printing of Patient-Specific Heart Valves: Separating Facts From Fiction and Myth From Reality

The development of prosthetic heart valves by Dr. Charles Hufnagel in 1952 was a major clinical innovation; however, it was not an ideal solution. Mechanical prosthetic heart valves are rigid, immunogenic, require anticoagulation, do not grow with the patient, and have a finite life.¹ An ideal prosthetic valve should overcome all these limitations. Considering the prevalence of valvular heart disorders, there is considerable interest in the creation of patient-specific heart valves. Following the introduction of three-dimensional (3D) printing in 1986 by Chuck Hill, rapid advances in multimodality 3D imaging and modeling have led to a generation of tangible replicas of patient-specific anatomy. The science of organogenesis has gained importance for a multitude of valid reasons: as an alternate source of organs, for realistic drug testing, as an alternative to animal testing, and for transplants that grow with the patient. What scientists imagined to be seemingly impossible in the past now seems just a step away from becoming a reality. However, due to the disruptive nature of this technology, often there are commercially-motivated claims of originality and overstatement of the scope and applicability of 3D printing. It often is difficult to separate fact from fiction and myth from reality. In this manuscript, the authors have reviewed the historic perspective, status of the basic techniques of organogenesis with specific reference to heart valves, and their potential.

3D Printing of Micro- and Nanoscale Bone Substitutes: A Review on Technical and Translational Perspectives

Recent developments in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology offer immense potential in fabricating scaffolds and implants for various biomedical applications, especially for bone repair and regeneration. As the availability of autologous bone sources and commercial products is limited and surgical methods do not help in complete regeneration, it is necessary to develop alternative approaches for repairing large segmental bone defects. The 3D printing technology can effectively integrate different types of living cells within a 3D construct made up of conventional micro- or nanoscale biomaterials to create an artificial bone graft capable of regenerating the damaged tissues. This article reviews the developments and applications of 3D printing in bone tissue engineering and highlights the numerous conventional biomaterials and nanomaterials that have been used in the production of 3D-printed scaffolds. A comprehensive overview of the 3D printing methods such as stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and ink-jet 3D printing, and their technical and clinical applications in bone repair and regeneration has been provided. The review is expected to be useful for readers to gain an insight into the state-of-the-art of 3D printing of bone substitutes and their translational perspectives.

3D printing in the battle against COVID-19

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that is SARS-CoV-2, previously called 2019-nCoV, is a kind of human infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Based on the prompt increase of human infection rate, COVID-19 outbreak was distinguished as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). By 2020, COVID-19 becomes a major health problem all around the world. Due to the battle against COVID-19, there are some adversities that are encountered with. The most significant difficulty is the lack of equipment for the COVID-19 battle. Lately, there is not sufficient personal protective equipment (PPE) for hospital workers on the front lines in this terrifying time. All around the world, hospitals are overwhelmed by the volume of patients and the lack of personal protective equipment including face masks, gloves, eye protection and clothing. In addition, the lack of nasal swabs, which are necessary components, that are used for testing is another issue that is being faced. There are a small number of respirators, which are emergency devices that help patients breathe for a short period of time. To overcome the limited number of equipment available, the foremost solution can be 3D printing that allows three-dimensional renderings to be realized as physical objects with the use of a printer and that revolutionized prototyping. Low-cost desktop 3D printers allow economical 3D models and guides but have less quality approvals. 3D printing is already well integrated into the process of COVID-19 battle by manufacturing the equipment that are convenient. The goals of this review are to explore the techniques of 3D printing for the equipment that are used for COVID-19 battle and evaluate the materials that are used for manufacturing and the manufactured equipment. Lastly, the advantages and disadvantages of 3D printing are figured out.

Bilayer Scaffolds for Interface Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: A Systematic Reviews

PURPOSE

This systematic review focus on the application of bilayer scaffolds as an engaging structure for the engineering of multilayered tissues, including vascular and osteochondral tissues, skin, nerve, and urinary bladder. This article provides a concise literature review of different types of bilayer scaffolds to understand their efficacy in targeted tissue engineering.

METHODS

To this aim, electronic search in the English language was performed in PMC, NBCI, and PubMed from April 2008 to December 2019 based on the PRISMA guidelines. Animal studies, including the "bilayer scaffold" and at least one of the following items were examined: osteochondral tissue, bone, skin, neural tissue, urinary bladder, vascular system. The articles which didn't include "tissue engineering" and just in vitro studies were excluded.

RESULTS

Totally, 600 articles were evaluated; related articles were 145, and 35 full-text English articles met all the criteria. Fifteen articles in soft tissue engineering and twenty items in hard tissue engineering were the results of this exploration. Based on selected papers, it was revealed that the bilayer scaffolds were used in the regeneration of the multilayered tissues. The highest multilayered tissue regeneration has been achieved when bilayer scaffolds were used with mesenchymal stem cells and differentiation medium before implanting. Among the studies being reported in this review, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells are the most studied mesenchymal stem cells. Among different kinds of multilayer tissue, the bilayer scaffold has been most used in osteochondral tissue engineering in which collagen and PLGA have been the most frequently used biomaterials. After osteochondral tissue engineering, bilayer scaffolds were widely used in skin tissue engineering.

CONCLUSION

The current review aimed to manifest the researcher and surgeons to use a more sophisticated bilayer scaffold in combinations of appropriate stem cells, and different can improve multilayer tissue regeneration. This systematic review can pave a way to design a suitable bilayer scaffold for a specific target tissue and conjunction with proper stem cells.

Introducing a novel experimental model of bladder transplantation in mice

Bladder dysfunction is a common clinical problem attributed to various conditions such as posterior urethral valves, neurogenic bladder, ureteral ectopy, or bladder exstrophy. Currently, the main therapeutic option for these dysfunctions is neobladder reconstruction with gastrointestinal tract segments. However, the latter was associated with significant long-term complications. To provide a new candidate of possible surgical solution for bladder dysfunction, we propose a novel orthotropic mouse bladder transplantation model. The donor bladder with abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava was isolated and orthotopically sutured to the recipient, whose bladder above the ureteral opening level was removed. The recipient mice showed more than 80% 6-month survival rate and comparable body weight to control mice. At both 1 month and 6 months posttransplant, the urine voiding behavior of recipient mice and control mice was monitored by cystometry. We found that the recipient mice displayed similar bladder pressure and urine secretion ability compared to control mice especially at 6 months posttransplant. Similarity of bladder structure between recipient and control mice was confirmed by histology. As a proof of principle, we tested our model in an allogeneic setting. Early acute rejection was noted after day 5 that was histologically more profound by day 10 posttransplant. These results indicate that the mouse bladder transplant is able to provide normal bladder function.

Combating COVID-19 with tissue engineering: a review

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic triggered by SARS-CoV-2 emerged from Wuhan, China, firstly in December 2019, as well spread to almost all around the world rapidly. The main reason why this disease spreads so many people in a short time is that the virus could be transmitted from an infected person to another by infected droplets. The new emergence of diseases usually may affect multiple organs; moreover, this disease is such an example. Numerous reported studies focus on acute or chronic organ damage caused by the virus. At this point, tissue engineering (TE) strategies can be used to treat the damages with its interdisciplinary approaches. Tissue engineers could design drug delivery systems, scaffolds, and especially biomaterials for the damaged tissue and organs. In this review, brief information about SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, and epidemiology of the disease will be given at first. After that, the symptoms, the tissue damages in specific organs, and cytokine effect caused by COVID-19 will be described in detail. Finally, it will be attempted to summarize and suggest the appropriate treatments with suitable biomaterials for the damages via TE approaches. The aim of this review is to serve as a summary of currently available tissue damage treatments after COVID-19.

Fabricating a pre-vascularized large-sized metabolically-supportive scaffold using Brassica oleracea leaf

BACKGROUND

There is a significant pitfall in clinical translation of large-sized tissue-engineered grafts - a lack of vascularization. This study was carried out to find the answer in a plant leaf, as plants and animals share structural similarities.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We fabricated a scaffold using Brassica oleracea leaves (10%SDS) and expanded the endothelial cells onto them. The vascularity was demarcated by angiography. The thermal decomposition confirmed that the oxidation resistance of the scaffold is parallel to the natural leaf. The acellularity of the scaffold as well as the presence of cellular establishment after culture on the scaffold was confirmed by histology, scanning electron microscopy, periodic acid-Schiff, and DNA quantification. Further, we estimated various biochemical markers like MDA, catalase, total proteins, and total nitric oxide for confirming their metabolic activities. Cell-specific markers like vWF, lectin established their phenotype. Cytotoxicity and live-dead assay showed the viability of cells.

CONCLUSION

Our findings proved that the decellularized leaf scaffold preserves vascularity, exhibits non-toxicity, maintains the cell identity, and supports mammalian cells for their metabolic activities. The study gives a futuristic hope in combating the ever-growing issues of clinical applicability of large-sized grafts.

Three dimensional bioprinting technology: Applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical area

3D bioprinting is a technology based on the principle of three-dimensional printing of designed biological materials, which has been widely used recently. The production of biological materials, such as tissues, organs, cells and blood vessels with this technology is alternative and promising approach for organ and tissue transplantation. Apart from tissue and organ printing, it has a wide range of usage, such as in vitro/in vivo modeling, production of drug delivery systems and, drug screening. However, there are various restrictions on the use of this technology. In this review, the process steps, classification, advantages, limitations, usage and application areas of 3D bioprinting technology, materials and auxiliary materials used in this technology are discussed.

Incorporation of Smooth Muscle Cells Derived from Human Adipose Stem Cells on Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) Scaffold for the Reconstruction of Subtotally Resected Urinary Bladder in Athymic Rats

BACKGROUND

The urinary tract can be affected by both congenital abnormalities as well as acquired disorders, such as cancer, trauma, infection, inflammation, and iatrogenic injuries, all of which may lead to organ damage requiring eventual reconstruction. As a gold standard, gastrointestinal segment is used for urinary bladder reconstruction. However, one major problem is that while bladder tissue prevents reabsorption of specific solutes, gastrointestinal tissue actually absorbs them. Therefore, tissue engineering approach had been attempted to provide an alternative tissue graft for urinary bladder reconstruction.

METHODS

Human adipose-derived stem cells isolated from fat tissues were differentiated into smooth muscle cells and then seeded onto a triple-layered PLGA sheet to form a bladder construct. Adult athymic rats underwent subtotal urinary bladder resection and were divided into three treatment groups (n = 3): Group 1 ("sham") underwent anastomosis of the remaining basal region, Group 2 underwent reconstruction with the cell-free scaffold, and Group 3 underwent reconstruction with the tissue-engineered bladder construct. Animals were monitored on a daily basis and euthanisation was performed whenever a decline in animal health was detected.

RESULTS

All animals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 survived for at least 7 days and were followed up to a maximum of 12 weeks post-operation. It was found that by Day 14, substantial ingrowth of smooth muscle and urothelial cells had occurred in Group 2 and 3. In the long-term follow up of group 3 (tissue-engineered bladder construct group), it was found that the urinary bladder wall was completely regenerated and bladder function was fully restored. Urodynamic and radiological evaluations of the reconstructed bladder showed a return to normal bladder volume and function.Histological analysis revealed the presence of three muscular layers and a urothelium similar to that of a normal bladder. Immunohistochemical staining using human-specific myocyte markers (myosin heavy chain and smoothelin) confirmed the incorporation of the seeded cells in the newly regenerated muscular layers.

CONCLUSION

Implantation of PLGA construct seeded with smooth muscle cells derived from human adipose stem cells can lead to regeneration of the muscular layers and urothelial ingrowth, leading to formation of a completely functional urinary bladder.

Poly-phosphate increases SMC differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells on PLGA-polyurethane nanofibrous scaffold

The use of bioactive scaffolds in tissue engineering has a significant effect on the damaged tissue healing by an increase in speed and quality of the process. Herein, electrospinning was applied to fabricate composite nanofibrous scaffolds by Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and Polyurethane (PU) with and without poly-phosphate (poly-P). Scaffolds were characterized morphologically by scanning electron microscope (SEM), and their biocompatibility was also investigated by SEM, protein adsorption, cell attachment and survival assays. The applicability of the scaffolds for bladder tissue engineering was also evaluated by culturing mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) on the scaffolds and their differentiation into smooth muscle cell (SMC) was studied at the gene and protein levels. The results demonstrated that scaffold biocompatibility was increased significantly by loading poly-P. SMC related gene and protein expression level in MSCs cultured on poly-P-loaded scaffold was also increased significantly compared to those cells cultured on empty scaffold. It can be concluded that poly-P hasn’t also increased scaffold biocompatibility, but also SMC differentiation potential of MSCs was also increased while cultured on the poly-P containing scaffold compared to the empty scaffold. Taken together, our study showed that PLGA–PU–poly-P alone and in combination with MSCs has a promising potential for support urinary bladder smooth muscle tissue engineering.

3D Bioprinting Strategies for the Regeneration of Functional Tubular Tissues and Organs

It is difficult to fabricate tubular-shaped tissues and organs (e.g., trachea, blood vessel, and esophagus tissue) with traditional biofabrication techniques (e.g., electrospinning, cell-sheet engineering, and mold-casting) because these have complicated multiple processes. In addition, the tubular-shaped tissues and organs have their own design with target-specific mechanical and biological properties. Therefore, the customized geometrical and physiological environment is required as one of the most critical factors for functional tissue regeneration. 3D bioprinting technology has been receiving attention for the fabrication of patient-tailored and complex-shaped free-form architecture with high reproducibility and versatility. Printable biocomposite inks that can facilitate to build tissue constructs with polymeric frameworks and biochemical microenvironmental cues are also being actively developed for the reconstruction of functional tissue. In this review, we delineated the state-of-the-art of 3D bioprinting techniques specifically for tubular tissue and organ regeneration. In addition, this review described biocomposite inks, such as natural and synthetic polymers. Several described engineering approaches using 3D bioprinting techniques and biocomposite inks may offer beneficial characteristics for the physiological mimicry of human tubular tissues and organs.

Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells accelerate decellularized neobladder regeneration

Decellularized natural bladder matrices (neobladders) represent an exciting means to regenerate the bladder following bladder cancer-associated cystectomy. In this study, we compare the evolution of decellularized matrices with recellularized matrices by seeding it with human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSC) after implantation following partial cystectomy in rats. We discovered significant anatomical differences since 10 days after neobladder implantation with the ADSC-containing matrices promoting a significant recovery of mature p63- and cytokeratin 7-positive urothelium. We also discovered significantly induced expression of the vimentin mesoderm marker in the submucosal layer in ADSC-seeded matrices. Interestingly, we found a higher expression of smooth muscle actin in transversal and longitudinal smooth muscle layers with ADSC-seeded matrices. Furthermore, ADSC also showed increased vascularization and nerve innervation of the neobladder as determined by the distribution of CD31 and S100β reactivity, respectively. We believe that ADSC and their paracrine-acting pro-regenerative secretome within decellularized matrices represent an efficient bladder substitution strategy; however, we require a fuller understanding of the mechanisms involved before clinical studies can begin.

Immunogenicity analysis of decellularized cardiac scaffolds after transplantation into rats

Aim: Cardiac extracellular matrix (cECM) scaffolds are promising biomaterials for clinical applications. Our aim is to determine the immunogenicity of decellularized scaffolds from different sources for use as artificial organs during organ transplantation. Materials & methods: We transplanted Lewis rats with syngeneic (Lewis rat cECM), allogeneic (BN rat cECM) or xenogeneic (hamster cECM) decellularized cardiac scaffolds. Acute vascular and cellular rejection was quantified by immunohistochemistry and immune cell infiltration. Results: BN rat and hamster hearts were rejected following transplantation. BN and hamster cECMs had similarly low immunogenicity compared with Lewis rat cECMs and did not lead to increased rejection. Conclusion: We found that scaffolds from all sources did not induce vascular or cellular rejection and exhibited low immunogenicity.

Improved bladder smooth muscle cell differentiation of the mesenchymal stem cells when grown on electrospun polyacrylonitrile/polyethylene oxide nanofibrous scaffold

Reconstruction of the bladder wall plays an important role in improving its function in patients with urinary bladder dysfunction. Tissue engineering has been trying to introduce biocompatible nanofibers as scaffolds for bladder wall matrix substitutes. In this study a composite nanofibrous scaffold was fabricated from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) blend by electrospinning method and then its morphological and mechanical characteristics was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile, and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays. Then smooth muscle cell (SMC) differentiation supportive capacity of PAN-PEO nanofibers was investigated by culturing of human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AT-MSCs) on this scaffold and then its differentiation potential in different groups was investigated using SMC-related gene and protein markers. SEM and MTT results demonstrated that PAN-PEO supported AT-MSCs attachment, growth and proliferation, especially at early times after cell seeding. The obtained results from real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction revealed that collagen-I-α1, collagen-III-α1, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), calponin1, SM22α, caldesmon1, elastin, and myosin heavy chain (MHC) genes were expressed in AT-MSCs cultured on PAN-PEO significantly higher than those stem cells that cultured on the culture plate as a control. In addition α-SMA and MHC proteins were also expressed in AT-MSCs cultured on PAN-PEO significantly higher than control. According to the results PAN-PEO nanofibrous scaffold showed a positive AT-MSCs-seeded PAN-PEO has a great promising potential to use in bladder tissue engineering applications.

Tissue Engineering: Then, Now, and the Future

IMPACT STATEMENT

This "invited submission" concisely reviews the author's involvement in the early era of tissue engineering and summarizes his perspective. He points out the journal was present in this early era and that it functions as a viewing chamber for seeing the last 25 years of progress and that it stands ready to provide viewing of the next 25 years.

Current status of tissue engineering applied to bladder reconstruction in humans

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE

Bladder reconstruction is performed to replace or expand the bladder. The intestine is used in standard clinical practice for tissue in this procedure. The complications of bladder reconstruction range from those of intestinal resection to those resulting from the continuous contact of urine with tissue not prepared for this contact. In this article, we describe and classify the various biomaterials and cell cultures used in bladder tissue engineering and reviews the studies performed with humans.

ACQUISITION OF EVIDENCE

We conducted a review of literature published in the PubMed database between 1950 and 2017, following the principles of the PRISM declaration.

SYNTHESIS OF THE EVIDENCE

Numerous in vitro and animal model studies have been conducted, but only 18 experiments have been performed with humans, with a total of 169 patients. The current evidence suggests that an acellular matrix, a synthetic polymer with urothelial and autologous smooth muscle cells attached in vitro or stem cells would be the most practical approach for experimental bladder reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

Bladder replacement or expansion without using intestinal tissue is still a challenge, despite progress in the manufacture of biomaterials and the development of cell therapy. Well-designed studies with large numbers of patients and long follow-up times are needed to establish an effective clinical translation and standardisation of the check-up functional tests.

Bladder augmentation in children: current problems and experimental strategies for reconstruction

Bladder augmentation is a demanding surgical procedure and exclusively offered for selected children and has only a small spectrum of indications. Paediatric bladder voiding dysfunction occurs either on a basis of neurological dysfunction caused by congenital neural tube defects or on a basis of rare congenital anatomic malformations. Neurogenic bladder dysfunction often responds well to a combination of specific drugs and/or intermittent self-catheterization. However, selected patients with spinal dysraphism and children with congenital malformations like bladder exstrophy and resulting small bladder capacity might require bladder augmentation. Ileocystoplasty is the preferred method of bladder augmentation to date. Because of the substantial long-and short-term morbidity of augmentation cystoplasty, recent studies have tried to incorporate new techniques and technologies, such as the use of biomaterials to overcome or reduce the adverse effects. In this regard, homografts and allografts have been implemented in bladder augmentation with varying results, but recent studies have shown promising data in terms of proliferation of urothelium and muscle cells by using biological silk grafts.

Porous poly-l-lactide-co-ɛ-caprolactone scaffold: a novel biomaterial for vaginal tissue engineering

The surgical reconstruction of functional neovagina is challenging and susceptible to complications. Therefore, developing tissue engineering-based treatment methods for vaginal defects is important. Our aim was to develop and test a novel supercritical carbon dioxide foamed poly-l-lactide-co-ɛ-caprolactone (scPLCL) scaffold for vaginal reconstruction. The scaffolds were manufactured and characterized for porosity (65 ± 4%), pore size (350 ± 150 µm) and elastic modulus (2.8 ± 0.4 MPa). Vaginal epithelial (EC) and stromal cells (SC) were isolated, expanded and characterized with flow cytometry. Finally, cells were cultured with scPLCL scaffolds in separate and/or co-cultures. Their attachment, viability, proliferation and phenotype were analysed. Both cell types strongly expressed cell surface markers CD44, CD73 and CD166. Strong expression of CD326 was detected with ECs and CD90 and CD105 with SCs. Both ECs and SCs attached and maintained viability on scPLCL. Further, scPLCL supported the proliferation of especially ECs, which also maintained epithelial phenotype (cytokeratin expression) during 14-day assessment period. Interestingly, ECs expressed uroplakin (UP) Ia, UPIb and UPIII markers; further, UPIa and UPIII expression was significantly higher on ECs cultured on scPLCL than on cell culture plastic. In conclusion, the scPLCL is potential scaffold for vaginal tissue engineering and the results of this study further illustrate the excellent biocompatibility of PLCL.

Porous poly-l-lactide-co-ɛ-caprolactone scaffold: a novel biomaterial for vaginal tissue engineering

The surgical reconstruction of functional neovagina is challenging and susceptible to complications. Therefore, developing tissue engineering-based treatment methods for vaginal defects is important. Our aim was to develop and test a novel supercritical carbon dioxide foamed poly-l-lactide-co-ɛ-caprolactone (scPLCL) scaffold for vaginal reconstruction. The scaffolds were manufactured and characterized for porosity (65 ± 4%), pore size (350 ± 150 µm) and elastic modulus (2.8 ± 0.4 MPa). Vaginal epithelial (EC) and stromal cells (SC) were isolated, expanded and characterized with flow cytometry. Finally, cells were cultured with scPLCL scaffolds in separate and/or co-cultures. Their attachment, viability, proliferation and phenotype were analysed. Both cell types strongly expressed cell surface markers CD44, CD73 and CD166. Strong expression of CD326 was detected with ECs and CD90 and CD105 with SCs. Both ECs and SCs attached and maintained viability on scPLCL. Further, scPLCL supported the proliferation of especially ECs, which also maintained epithelial phenotype (cytokeratin expression) during 14-day assessment period. Interestingly, ECs expressed uroplakin (UP) Ia, UPIb and UPIII markers; further, UPIa and UPIII expression was significantly higher on ECs cultured on scPLCL than on cell culture plastic. In conclusion, the scPLCL is potential scaffold for vaginal tissue engineering and the results of this study further illustrate the excellent biocompatibility of PLCL.

Bladder regeneration in a canine model using a bladder acellular matrix loaded with a collagen-binding bFGF

Bladder reconstruction remains challenging for urological surgery due to lack of suitable regenerative scaffolds. In a previous study, we had used a collagen-binding basic fibroblast growth factor (CBD-bFGF) to bind bFGF to the collagen scaffold, which could promote bladder regeneration in rats. However, the limited graft size in rodent models cannot provide enough evidence to demonstrate the repair capabilities of this method for severely damaged bladders in humans or large animals. In this study, the CBD-bFGF was used to activate a bladder acellular matrix (BAM) scaffold, and the CBD-bFGF/BAM functional scaffold was assessed in a canine model with a large segment defect (half of the entire bladder was resected). The results demonstrated that the functional biomaterials could promote bladder smooth muscle, vascular, and nerve regeneration and improve the function of neobladders. Thus, the CBD-bFGF/BAM functional scaffold may be a promising biomaterial for bladder reconstruction.

Folding artificial mucosa with cell-laden hydrogels guided by mechanics models

The surfaces of many hollow or tubular tissues/organs in our respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts are covered by mucosa with folded patterns. The patterns are induced by mechanical instability of the mucosa under compression due to constrained growth. Recapitulating this folding process in vitro will facilitate the understanding and engineering of mucosa in various tissues/organs. However, scant attention has been paid to address the challenge of reproducing mucosal folding. Here we mimic the mucosal folding process using a cell-laden hydrogel film attached to a prestretched tough-hydrogel substrate. The cell-laden hydrogel constitutes a human epithelial cell lining on stromal component to recapitulate the physiological feature of a mucosa. Relaxation of the prestretched tough-hydrogel substrate applies compressive strains on the cell-laden hydrogel film, which undergoes mechanical instability and evolves into morphological patterns. We predict the conditions for mucosal folding as well as the morphology of and strain in the folded artificial mucosa using a combination of theory and simulation. The work not only provides a simple method to fold artificial mucosa but also demonstrates a paradigm in tissue engineering via harnessing mechanical instabilities guided by quantitative mechanics models.

3D bioprinting of tissues and organs for regenerative medicine

3D bioprinting is a pioneering technology that enables fabrication of biomimetic, multiscale, multi-cellular tissues with highly complex tissue microenvironment, intricate cytoarchitecture, structure-function hierarchy, and tissue-specific compositional and mechanical heterogeneity. Given the huge demand for organ transplantation, coupled with limited organ donors, bioprinting is a potential technology that could solve this crisis of organ shortage by fabrication of fully-functional whole organs. Though organ bioprinting is a far-fetched goal, there has been a considerable and commendable progress in the field of bioprinting that could be used as transplantable tissues in regenerative medicine. This paper presents a first-time review of 3D bioprinting in regenerative medicine, where the current status and contemporary issues of 3D bioprinting pertaining to the eleven organ systems of the human body including skeletal, muscular, nervous, lymphatic, endocrine, reproductive, integumentary, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and circulatory systems were critically reviewed. The implications of 3D bioprinting in drug discovery, development, and delivery systems are also briefly discussed, in terms of in vitro drug testing models, and personalized medicine. While there is a substantial progress in the field of bioprinting in the recent past, there is still a long way to go to fully realize the translational potential of this technology. Computational studies for study of tissue growth or tissue fusion post-printing, improving the scalability of this technology to fabricate human-scale tissues, development of hybrid systems with integration of different bioprinting modalities, formulation of new bioinks with tuneable mechanical and rheological properties, mechanobiological studies on cell-bioink interaction, 4D bioprinting with smart (stimuli-responsive) hydrogels, and addressing the ethical, social, and regulatory issues concerning bioprinting are potential futuristic focus areas that would aid in successful clinical translation of this technology.

Bioengineering Approaches for Bladder Regeneration

Current clinical strategies for bladder reconstruction or substitution are associated to serious problems. Therefore, new alternative approaches are becoming more and more necessary. The purpose of this work is to review the state of the art of the current bioengineering advances and obstacles reported in bladder regeneration. Tissue bladder engineering requires an ideal engineered bladder scaffold composed of a biocompatible material suitable to sustain the mechanical forces necessary for bladder filling and emptying. In addition, an engineered bladder needs to reconstruct a compliant muscular wall and a highly specialized urothelium, well-orchestrated under control of autonomic and sensory innervations. Bioreactors play a very important role allowing cell growth and specialization into a tissue-engineered vascular construct within a physiological environment. Bioprinting technology is rapidly progressing, achieving the generation of custom-made structural supports using an increasing number of different polymers as ink with a high capacity of reproducibility. Although many promising results have been achieved, few of them have been tested with clinical success. This lack of satisfactory applications is a good reason to discourage researchers in this field and explains, somehow, the limited high-impact scientific production in this area during the last decade, emphasizing that still much more progress is required before bioengineered bladders become a commonplace in the clinical setting.

Adipose-derived stem cells-seeded bladder acellular matrix graft-silk fibroin enhances bladder reconstruction in a rat model

The unfavourable clinical outcomes of host cell-seeded scaffolds for bladder augmentation warrant improved bioactive biomaterials. This study aimed to examine the feasibility of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs)-seeded bilayer bladder acellular matrix graft (BAMG)-silk fibroin (SF) scaffold in enhancing bladder reconstruction. Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups: the BAMG-SF-ASCs group, the acellular BAMG-SF group and the cystotomy group. The BAMG-SF-ASCs group was sampled at 2, 4 and 12 weeks, and compared with the other groups at 12 weeks. In the BAMG-SF-ASCs group, the normal bladder contour was reformed similar to that in the cystotomy group, with abundant urothelium and smooth muscle regeneration, as well as a suitable scaffold degradation speed, and trivial fibrosis and inflammation. The ASCs seeded in BAMG-SF were maintained in the regenerated region during the 12-week experimental period and significantly enhanced the vessel density, nerve regeneration and bladder function compared with acellular BAMG-SF. In addition, the BAMG-SF-ASCs group presented elevated levels of SDF-1α, VEGF and their receptors, with an obvious increase in ERK 1/2 phosphorylation. BAMG-SF is a promising biomaterial for ASCs seeding to facilitate bladder augmentation and demonstrated an enhanced angiogenic potential possibly related to the SDF-1α/CXCR4 pathway via ERK 1/2 activation.

Migration pathways of sacral neural crest during development of lower urogenital tract innervation

The migration and fate of cranial and vagal neural crest-derived progenitor cells (NCPCs) have been extensively studied; however, much less is known about sacral NCPCs particularly in regard to their distribution in the urogenital system. To construct a spatiotemporal map of NCPC migration pathways into the developing lower urinary tract, we utilized the Sox10-H2BVenus transgene to visualize NCPCs expressing Sox10. Our aim was to define the relationship of Sox10-expressing NCPCs relative to bladder innervation, smooth muscle differentiation, and vascularization through fetal development into adulthood. Sacral NCPC migration is a highly regimented, specifically timed process, with several potential regulatory mileposts. Neuronal differentiation occurs concomitantly with sacral NCPC migration, and neuronal cell bodies are present even before the pelvic ganglia coalesce. Sacral NCPCs reside within the pelvic ganglia anlagen through 13.5 days post coitum (dpc), after which they begin streaming into the bladder body in progressive waves. Smooth muscle differentiation and vascularization of the bladder initiate prior to innervation and appear to be independent processes. In adult bladder, the majority of Sox10+ cells express the glial marker S100β, consistent with Sox10 being a glial marker in other tissues. However, rare Sox10+ NCPCs are seen in close proximity to blood vessels and not all are S100β+, suggesting either glial heterogeneity or a potential nonglial role for Sox10+ cells along vasculature. Taken together, the developmental atlas of Sox10+ NCPC migration and distribution profile of these cells in adult bladder provided here will serve as a roadmap for future investigation in mouse models of lower urinary tract dysfunction.