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Nordvall G, Yan P, Agholme L, Lundkvist J, Sandin J, Biverstål H, Winblad B, Zetterberg H, Klintenberg R, Ferm M, Cirrito JR, Lee JM. γ-Secretase modulation inhibits amyloid plaque formation and growth and stimulates plaque regression in amyloid precursor protein/presenilin-1 mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2025; 392:103400. [PMID: 40054389 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpet.2025.103400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2025] [Indexed: 05/03/2025] Open
Abstract
γ-Secretase modulators (GSMs) represent an emerging oral therapy for preventing and targeting Aβ-amyloidosis in Alzheimer disease. Aβ is a family of peptides of varying lengths where both the total and relative amounts of the individual Aβ peptides affect the process of amyloidosis. In contrast to inhibitors of Aβ synthesis, GSMs do not affect the total amount of Aβ peptides generated but decrease longer more amyloidogenic Aβ species while increasing the production of shorter less amyloidogenic Aβ peptides. In this study, we investigated how this modulation of Aβ production affects Aβ plaque dynamics in the brains of APP/PS1dE9 transgenic mice. Similar to studies with different inhibitors of Aβ synthesis, we found that 28 days of once-daily oral treatment with the GSM AZ4126 (100 μmol/kg) resulted in a strong reduction in plaque formation and plaque growth. In addition, and in contrast to Aβ production inhibitors, the GSM AZ4126 caused a significant reduction in the size of established Aβ plaques. Moreover, the antiamyloidogenic activity was accompanied by a marked reduction in brain interstitial fluid Aβ40 and Aβ42 and an increase in Aβ37. Treatment of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cortical neurons with the GSM AZ4126 reduced secreted Aβ40 and Aβ42 dose-dependently and with a complementary increase in Aβ37 and Aβ38. These studies unravel a previously unknown antiamyloidogenic effect of GSMs, suggesting that they promote the clearance of already established Aβ pathology in addition to their inhibition of Aβ amyloid formation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Immunotherapies promoting Aβ-amyloid clearance have shown efficacy in early Alzheimer disease, but complementary Aβ targeting therapeutic approaches are needed. γ-Secretase modulators (GSMs) target Aβ production with an effective and tolerable mechanism. This study demonstrates that a GSM not only inhibits Aβ-amyloid formation but also promotes Aβ-plaque clearance in experiments conducted in an Aβ-amyloidosis mouse model and supports further development of GSMs as an effective oral treatment for Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Nordvall
- AlzeCure Pharma AB, Huddinge, Sweden; Former AstraZeneca R&D, CNS & Pain Innovative Medicines, Södertälje, Sweden; Division of Neurogeriatrics, Care Sciences and Society, Department of Neurobiology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.
| | - Ping Yan
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Lotta Agholme
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Johan Lundkvist
- Former AstraZeneca R&D, CNS & Pain Innovative Medicines, Södertälje, Sweden; Division of Neurogeriatrics, Care Sciences and Society, Department of Neurobiology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden; AlzeCure Foundation, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Johan Sandin
- AlzeCure Pharma AB, Huddinge, Sweden; Former AstraZeneca R&D, CNS & Pain Innovative Medicines, Södertälje, Sweden; Division of Neurogeriatrics, Care Sciences and Society, Department of Neurobiology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Henrik Biverstål
- The Biosciences and Nutrition Unit (BioNut) at the Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Bengt Winblad
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Care Sciences and Society, Department of Neurobiology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden; Theme Inflammation & Aging, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden; Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom; UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, United Kingdom; Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China; Wisconsin Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | | | - Mats Ferm
- Former AstraZeneca R&D, CNS & Pain Innovative Medicines, Södertälje, Sweden
| | - John R Cirrito
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Jin-Moo Lee
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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Rowland HA, Miller G, Liu Q, Li S, Sharp NR, Ng B, Wei T, Arunasalam K, Koychev I, Hedegaard A, Ribe EM, Chan D, Chessell T, Kocagoncu E, Lawson J, Malhotra P, Ridha BH, Rowe JB, Thomas AJ, Zamboni G, Zetterberg H, Cader MZ, Wade-Martins R, Lovestone S, Nevado-Holgado A, Kormilitzin A, Buckley NJ. Changes in iPSC-astrocyte morphology reflect Alzheimer's disease patient clinical markers. Stem Cells 2025; 43:sxae085. [PMID: 39704342 PMCID: PMC11907432 DOI: 10.1093/stmcls/sxae085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 12/21/2024]
Abstract
Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provide powerful cellular models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and offer many advantages over non-human models, including the potential to reflect variation in individual-specific pathophysiology and clinical symptoms. Previous studies have demonstrated that iPSC-neurons from individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD) reflect clinical markers, including β-amyloid (Aβ) levels and synaptic vulnerability. However, despite neuronal loss being a key hallmark of AD pathology, many risk genes are predominantly expressed in glia, highlighting them as potential therapeutic targets. In this work iPSC-derived astrocytes were generated from a cohort of individuals with high versus low levels of the inflammatory marker YKL-40, in their cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). iPSC-derived astrocytes were treated with exogenous Aβ oligomers and high content imaging demonstrated a correlation between astrocytes that underwent the greatest morphology change from patients with low levels of CSF-YKL-40 and more protective APOE genotypes. This finding was subsequently verified using similarity learning as an unbiased approach. This study shows that iPSC-derived astrocytes from AD patients reflect key aspects of the pathophysiological phenotype of those same patients, thereby offering a novel means of modelling AD, stratifying AD patients and conducting therapeutic screens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen A Rowland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Georgina Miller
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Qiang Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Oxford Precision Psychiatry Lab, NIHR Oxford Health Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- School of Engineering Mathematics and Technology, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TW, United Kingdom
| | - Shuhan Li
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola R Sharp
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Bryan Ng
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences (SICS), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 117609, Republic of Singapore
| | - Tina Wei
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Kanisa Arunasalam
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan Koychev
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Hedegaard
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, United Kingdom
| | - Elena M Ribe
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, Maurice Wohl Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, King’s College London, London SE5 8AB, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis Chan
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College, LondonWC1N 3AR, United Kingdom
| | - Tharani Chessell
- Neuroscience, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Ece Kocagoncu
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Trust, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Lawson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
| | - Paresh Malhotra
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London W6 8RP, United Kingdom
| | - Basil H Ridha
- Dementia Research Centre, UCL Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - James B Rowe
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Trust, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom
| | - Alan J Thomas
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
| | - Giovanna Zamboni
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Headington, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic, and Neural Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Ospedale Civile Baggiovara, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, S-431 80 Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, S-431 80 Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 6BG, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1N 6BG, United Kingdom
- Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China
- Wisconsin Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison WI 53792, United States
| | - M Zameel Cader
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Lovestone
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Currently at Janssen Medical UK, 50-100 Holmers Farm Way, High Wycombe HP12 4EG, United Kingdom
| | - Alejo Nevado-Holgado
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
| | - Andrey Kormilitzin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
| | - Noel J Buckley
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom
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Sollazzo R, Li Puma DD, Aceto G, Paciello F, Colussi C, Vita MG, Giuffrè GM, Pastore F, Casamassa A, Rosati J, Novelli A, Maietta S, Tiziano FD, Marra C, Ripoli C, Grassi C. Structural and functional alterations of neurons derived from sporadic Alzheimer's disease hiPSCs are associated with downregulation of the LIMK1-cofilin axis. Alzheimers Res Ther 2024; 16:267. [PMID: 39702316 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-024-01632-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 11/26/2024] [Indexed: 12/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of pathological proteins and synaptic dysfunction. This study aims to investigate the molecular and functional differences between human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) derived from patients with sporadic AD (sAD) and age-matched controls (healthy subjects, HS), focusing on their neuronal differentiation and synaptic properties in order to better understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying AD pathology. METHODS Skin fibroblasts from sAD patients (n = 5) and HS subjects (n = 5) were reprogrammed into hiPSCs using non-integrating Sendai virus vectors. Through karyotyping, we assessed pluripotency markers (OCT4, SOX2, TRA-1-60) and genomic integrity. Neuronal differentiation was evaluated by immunostaining for MAP2 and NEUN. Electrophysiological properties were measured using whole-cell patch-clamp, while protein expression of Aβ, phosphorylated tau, Synapsin-1, Synaptophysin, PSD95, and GluA1 was quantified by western blot. We then focused on PAK1-LIMK1-Cofilin signaling, which plays a key role in regulating synaptic structure and function, both of which are disrupted in neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. RESULTS sAD and HS hiPSCs displayed similar stemness features and genomic stability. However, they differed in neuronal differentiation and function. sAD-derived neurons (sAD-hNs) displayed increased levels of AD-related proteins, including Aβ and phosphorylated tau. Electrophysiological analyses revealed that while both sAD- and HS-hNs generated action potentials, sAD-hNs exhibited decreased spontaneous synaptic activity. Significant reductions in the expression of synaptic proteins such as Synapsin-1, Synaptophysin, PSD95, and GluA1 were found in sAD-hNs, which are also characterized by reduced neurite length, indicating impaired differentiation. Notably, sAD-hNs demonstrated a marked reduction in LIMK1 phosphorylation, which could be the underlying cause for the changes in cytoskeletal dynamics that we found, leading to the morphological and functional modifications observed in sAD-hNs. To further investigate the involvement of the LIMK1 pathway in the morphological and functional changes observed in sAD neurons, we conducted perturbation experiments using the specific LIMK1 inhibitor, BMS-5. Neurons obtained from healthy subjects treated with the inhibitor showed similar morphological changes to those observed in sAD neurons, confirming that LIMK1 activity is crucial for maintaining normal neuronal structure. Furthermore, administration of the inhibitor to sAD neurons did not exacerbate the morphological alterations, suggesting that LIMK1 activity is already compromised in these cells. CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrate that although sAD- and HS-hiPSCs are similar in their stemness and genomic stability, sAD-hNs exhibit distinct functional and structural anomalies mirroring AD pathology. These anomalies include synaptic dysfunction, altered cytoskeletal organization, and accumulation of AD-related proteins. Our study underscores the usefulness of hiPSCs in modeling AD and provides insights into the disease's molecular underpinnings, thus highlighting potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raimondo Sollazzo
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Domenica Donatella Li Puma
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Aceto
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabiola Paciello
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia Colussi
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Department of Engineering, Istituto Di Analisi Dei Sistemi Ed Informatica "Antonio Ruberti", National Research Council, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Francesco Pastore
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessia Casamassa
- Cellular Reprogramming Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa, Sollievo Della Sofferenza, 71013 - San Giovanni, Rotondo, Italy
| | - Jessica Rosati
- Cellular Reprogramming Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa, Sollievo Della Sofferenza, 71013 - San Giovanni, Rotondo, Italy
- Saint Camillus International, University of Health Sciences, 00131, Rome, Italy
| | - Agnese Novelli
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Sabrina Maietta
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Danilo Tiziano
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Camillo Marra
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristian Ripoli
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy.
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy.
| | - Claudio Grassi
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
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Mihailovich M, Soković Bajić S, Dinić M, Đokić J, Živković M, Radojević D, Golić N. Cutting-Edge iPSC-Based Approaches in Studying Host-Microbe Interactions in Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:10156. [PMID: 39337640 PMCID: PMC11432053 DOI: 10.3390/ijms251810156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2024] [Revised: 09/14/2024] [Accepted: 09/18/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Gut microbiota (GM), together with its metabolites (such as SCFA, tryptophan, dopamine, GABA, etc.), plays an important role in the functioning of the central nervous system. Various neurological and psychiatric disorders are associated with changes in the composition of GM and their metabolites, which puts them in the foreground as a potential adjuvant therapy. However, the molecular mechanisms behind this relationship are not clear enough. Therefore, before considering beneficial microbes and/or their metabolites as potential therapeutics for brain disorders, the mechanisms underlying microbiota-host interactions must be identified and characterized in detail. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of GM alterations observed in prevalent neurological and psychiatric disorders, multiple sclerosis, major depressive disorder, Alzheimer's disease, and autism spectrum disorders, together with experimental evidence of their potential to improve patients' quality of life. We further discuss the main obstacles in the study of GM-host interactions and describe the state-of-the-art solution and trends in this field, namely "culturomics" which enables the culture and identification of novel bacteria that inhabit the human gut, and models of the gut and blood-brain barrier as well as the gut-brain axis based on induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and iPSC derivatives, thus pursuing a personalized medicine agenda for neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Mihailovich
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
- Human Technopole, Palazzo Italia, Viale Rita Levi-Montalcini, 1, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Svetlana Soković Bajić
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
| | - Miroslav Dinić
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
| | - Jelena Đokić
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
| | - Milica Živković
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
| | - Dušan Radojević
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
| | - Nataša Golić
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering (IMGGE), University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11042 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.S.B.); (M.D.); (J.Đ.); (M.Ž.); (D.R.)
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5
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Ng B, Vowles J, Bertherat F, Abey A, Kilfeather P, Beccano-Kelly D, Stefana MI, O'Brien DP, Bengoa-Vergniory N, Carling PJ, Todd JA, Caffrey TM, Connor-Robson N, Cowley SA, Wade-Martins R. Tau depletion in human neurons mitigates Aβ-driven toxicity. Mol Psychiatry 2024; 29:2009-2020. [PMID: 38361127 PMCID: PMC11408257 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-024-02463-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative condition and the most common type of dementia, characterised by pathological accumulation of extracellular plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles that mainly consist of amyloid-β (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates, respectively. Previous studies in mouse models with a targeted knock-out of the microtubule-associated protein tau (Mapt) gene demonstrated that Aβ-driven toxicity is tau-dependent. However, human cellular models with chronic tau lowering remain unexplored. In this study, we generated stable tau-depleted human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) isogenic panels from two healthy individuals using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. We then differentiated these iPSCs into cortical neurons in vitro in co-culture with primary rat cortical astrocytes before conducting electrophysiological and imaging experiments for a wide range of disease-relevant phenotypes. Both AD brain derived and recombinant Aβ were used in this study to elicit toxic responses from the iPSC-derived cortical neurons. We showed that tau depletion in human iPSC-derived cortical neurons caused considerable reductions in neuronal activity without affecting synaptic density. We also observed neurite outgrowth impairments in two of the tau-depleted lines used. Finally, tau depletion protected neurons from adverse effects by mitigating the impact of exogenous Aβ-induced hyperactivity, deficits in retrograde axonal transport of mitochondria, and neurodegeneration. Our study established stable human iPSC isogenic panels with chronic tau depletion from two healthy individuals. Cortical neurons derived from these iPSC lines showed that tau is essential in Aβ-driven hyperactivity, axonal transport deficits, and neurodegeneration, consistent with studies conducted in Mapt-/- mouse models. These findings highlight the protective effects of chronic tau lowering strategies in AD pathogenesis and reinforce the potential in clinical settings. The tau-depleted human iPSC models can now be applied at scale to investigate the involvement of tau in disease-relevant pathways and cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Ng
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Jane Vowles
- James and Lillian Martin Centre for Stem Cell Research, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3RE, Oxford, UK
| | - Féodora Bertherat
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Ajantha Abey
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Peter Kilfeather
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Dayne Beccano-Kelly
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - M Irina Stefana
- JDRF/Wellcome Diabetes and Inflammation Laboratory, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Darragh P O'Brien
- Target Discovery Institute, Centres for Medicines Discovery, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, NDM Research Building, Old Road Campus, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Nora Bengoa-Vergniory
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Phillippa J Carling
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
- Oxford Drug Discovery Institute, Target Discovery Institute, University of Oxford, NDM Research Building, Old Road Campus, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - John A Todd
- JDRF/Wellcome Diabetes and Inflammation Laboratory, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Tara M Caffrey
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Natalie Connor-Robson
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Sally A Cowley
- James and Lillian Martin Centre for Stem Cell Research, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3RE, Oxford, UK.
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK.
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK.
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6
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Elman JA, Schork NJ, Rangan AV, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Exploring the genetic heterogeneity of Alzheimer's disease: Evidence for genetic subtypes. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2023.05.02.23289347. [PMID: 37205553 PMCID: PMC10187457 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.02.23289347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Background Alzheimer's disease (AD) exhibits considerable phenotypic heterogeneity, suggesting the potential existence of subtypes. AD is under substantial genetic influence, thus identifying systematic variation in genetic risk may provide insights into disease origins. Objective We investigated genetic heterogeneity in AD risk through a multi-step analysis. Methods We performed principal component analysis (PCA) on AD-associated variants in the UK Biobank (AD cases=2,739, controls=5,478) to assess structured genetic heterogeneity. Subsequently, a biclustering algorithm searched for distinct disease-specific genetic signatures among subsets of cases. Replication tests were conducted using the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) dataset (AD cases=500, controls=470). We categorized a separate set of ADNI individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI; n=399) into genetic subtypes and examined cognitive, amyloid, and tau trajectories. Results PCA revealed three distinct clusters ("constellations") driven primarily by different correlation patterns in a region of strong LD surrounding the MAPT locus. Constellations contained a mixture of cases and controls, reflecting disease-relevant but not disease-specific structure. We found two disease-specific biclusters among AD cases. Pathway analysis linked bicluster-associated variants to neuron morphogenesis and outgrowth. Disease-relevant and disease-specific structure replicated in ADNI, and bicluster 2 exhibited increased CSF p-tau and cognitive decline over time. Conclusions This study unveils a hierarchical structure of AD genetic risk. Disease-relevant constellations may represent haplotype structure that does not increase risk directly but may alter the relative importance of other genetic risk factors. Biclusters may represent distinct AD genetic subtypes. This structure is replicable and relates to differential pathological accumulation and cognitive decline over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy A. Elman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Center for Behavior Genetics of Aging, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas J. Schork
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- The Translational Genomics Research Institute, Quantitative Medicine and Systems Biology, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Aaditya V. Rangan
- Department of Mathematics, New York University, New York, New York, USA
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Franks SN, Heon-Roberts R, Ryan BJ. CRISPRi: a way to integrate iPSC-derived neuronal models. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:539-551. [PMID: 38526223 PMCID: PMC11088925 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
The genetic landscape of neurodegenerative diseases encompasses genes affecting multiple cellular pathways which exert effects in an array of neuronal and glial cell-types. Deconvolution of the roles of genes implicated in disease and the effects of disease-associated variants remains a vital step in the understanding of neurodegeneration and the development of therapeutics. Disease modelling using patient induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has enabled the generation of key cell-types associated with disease whilst maintaining the genomic variants that predispose to neurodegeneration. The use of CRISPR interference (CRISPRi), alongside other CRISPR-perturbations, allows the modelling of the effects of these disease-associated variants or identifying genes which modify disease phenotypes. This review summarises the current applications of CRISPRi in iPSC-derived neuronal models, such as fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)-based screens, and discusses the future opportunities for disease modelling, identification of disease risk modifiers and target/drug discovery in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah N.J. Franks
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre and Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Rachel Heon-Roberts
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre and Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Brent J. Ryan
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre and Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
- Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
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Cohen J, Mathew A, Dourvetakis KD, Sanchez-Guerrero E, Pangeni RP, Gurusamy N, Aenlle KK, Ravindran G, Twahir A, Isler D, Sosa-Garcia SR, Llizo A, Bested AC, Theoharides TC, Klimas NG, Kempuraj D. Recent Research Trends in Neuroinflammatory and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Cells 2024; 13:511. [PMID: 38534355 PMCID: PMC10969521 DOI: 10.3390/cells13060511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), traumatic brain injury (TBI) and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are chronic major health disorders. The exact mechanism of the neuroimmune dysfunctions of these disease pathogeneses is currently not clearly understood. These disorders show dysregulated neuroimmune and inflammatory responses, including activation of neurons, glial cells, and neurovascular unit damage associated with excessive release of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, neurotoxic mediators, and infiltration of peripheral immune cells into the brain, as well as entry of inflammatory mediators through damaged neurovascular endothelial cells, blood-brain barrier and tight junction proteins. Activation of glial cells and immune cells leads to the release of many inflammatory and neurotoxic molecules that cause neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Gulf War Illness (GWI) and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) are chronic disorders that are also associated with neuroimmune dysfunctions. Currently, there are no effective disease-modifying therapeutic options available for these diseases. Human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neurons, astrocytes, microglia, endothelial cells and pericytes are currently used for many disease models for drug discovery. This review highlights certain recent trends in neuroinflammatory responses and iPSC-derived brain cell applications in neuroinflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Cohen
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Annette Mathew
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Kirk D Dourvetakis
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Estella Sanchez-Guerrero
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Rajendra P Pangeni
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Narasimman Gurusamy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Kristina K Aenlle
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
- Miami VA Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), Miami Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, Miami, FL 33125, USA
| | - Geeta Ravindran
- Cell Therapy Institute, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Assma Twahir
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Dylan Isler
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Sara Rukmini Sosa-Garcia
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Axel Llizo
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Alison C Bested
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Theoharis C Theoharides
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopharmacology and Drug Discovery, Department of Immunology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Nancy G Klimas
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
- Miami VA Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), Miami Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, Miami, FL 33125, USA
| | - Duraisamy Kempuraj
- Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
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Polis B, Samson AO. Addressing the Discrepancies Between Animal Models and Human Alzheimer's Disease Pathology: Implications for Translational Research. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 98:1199-1218. [PMID: 38517793 DOI: 10.3233/jad-240058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Animal models, particularly transgenic mice, are extensively used in Alzheimer's disease (AD) research to emulate key disease hallmarks, such as amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles formation. Although these models have contributed to our understanding of AD pathogenesis and can be helpful in testing potential therapeutic interventions, their reliability is dubious. While preclinical studies have shown promise, clinical trials often yield disappointing results, highlighting a notable gap and disparity between animal models and human AD pathology. Existing models frequently overlook early-stage human pathologies and other key AD characteristics, thereby limiting their application in identifying optimal therapeutic interventions. Enhancing model reliability necessitates rigorous study design, comprehensive behavioral evaluations, and biomarker utilization. Overall, a nuanced understanding of each model's neuropathology, its fidelity to human AD, and its limitations is essential for accurate interpretation and successful translation of findings. This article analyzes the discrepancies between animal models and human AD pathology that complicate the translation of findings from preclinical studies to clinical applications. We also delve into AD pathogenesis and attributes to propose a new perspective on this pathology and deliberate over the primary limitations of key experimental models. Additionally, we discuss several fundamental problems that may explain the translational failures and suggest some possible directions for more effective preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baruh Polis
- Bar-Ilan University Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Safed, Israel
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Sahlgren Bendtsen KM, Hall VJ. The Breakthroughs and Caveats of Using Human Pluripotent Stem Cells in Modeling Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2023; 12:cells12030420. [PMID: 36766763 PMCID: PMC9913971 DOI: 10.3390/cells12030420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Modeling Alzheimer's disease (AD) using human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) is a field now spanning 15 years. Developments in the field have shown a shift in using simple 2D cortical neuron models to more advanced tri-cultures and 3D cerebral organoids that recapitulate more features of the disease. This is largely due to development and optimization of new cell protocols. In this review, we highlight recent major breakthroughs in the AD field and the implications this has in modeling AD using iPSCs (AD-iPSCs). To date, AD-iPSCs have been largely used to recapitulate and study impaired amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing and tau phosphorylation in both familial and sporadic AD. AD-iPSCs have also been studied for varying neuronal and glial dysfunctions. Moreover, they have been useful for discovering new molecular mechanisms, such as identifying proteins that bridge APP processing with tau phosphorylation and for identifying molecular pathways that bridge APP processing dysfunction with impaired cholesterol biosynthesis. Perhaps the greatest use of AD-iPSCs has been in discovering compounds via drug screening, that reduce amyloid beta (Aβ) in neurons, such as the anti-inflammatory compound, cromolyn, and antiparasitic drugs, avermectins. In addition, high content screening using AD-iPSCs has led to the identification of statins that can reduce levels of phosphorylated tau (p-Tau) in neurons. Some of these compounds have made it through to testing in human clinical trials. Improvements in omic technologies including single cell RNA sequencing and proteomics as well as advances in production of iPSC-cerebral organoids and tri-cultures is likely to result in the further discovery of new drugs and treatments for AD. Some caveats remain in the field, including, long experimental conditions to create mature neurons, high costs of media that limit research capabilities, and a lack of reproducibility using current iPSC-cerebral organoid protocols. Despite these current limitations, AD-iPSCs remain an excellent cellular model for studying AD mechanisms and for drug discovery.
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Gupta S, Polit LD, Fitzgerald M, Rowland HA, Murali D, Buckley NJ, Subramaniam S. Temporal transcriptional control of neural induction in human induced pluripotent stem cells. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1139287. [PMID: 37213689 PMCID: PMC10195998 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1139287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Neural induction of human induced pluripotent stem cells represents a critical switch in cell state during which pluripotency is lost and commitment to a neural lineage is initiated. Although many of the key transcription factors involved in neural induction are known, we know little of the temporal and causal relationships that are required for this state transition. Methods Here, we have carried out a longitudinal analysis of the transcriptome of human iPSCs undergoing neural induction. Using the temporal relationships between the changing profile of key transcription factors and subsequent changes in their target gene expression profiles, we have identified distinct functional modules operative throughout neural induction. Results In addition to modules that govern loss of pluripotency and gain of neural ectoderm identity, we discover other modules governing cell cycle and metabolism. Strikingly, some of these functional modules are retained throughout neural induction, even though the gene membership of the module changes. Systems analysis identifies other modules associated with cell fate commitment, genome integrity, stress response and lineage specification. We then focussed on OTX2, one of the most precociously activated transcription factors during neural induction. Our temporal analysis of OTX2 target gene expression identified several OTX2 regulated gene modules representing protein remodelling, RNA splicing and RNA processing. Further CRISPRi inhibition of OTX2 prior to neural induction promotes an accelerated loss of pluripotency and a precocious and aberrant neural induction disrupting some of the previously identified modules. Discussion We infer that OTX2 has a diverse role during neural induction and regulates many of the biological processes that are required for loss of pluripotency and gain of neural identity. This dynamical analysis of transcriptional changes provides a unique perspective of the widespread remodelling of the cell machinery that occurs during neural induction of human iPSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakti Gupta
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Lucia Dutan Polit
- Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Fitzgerald
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Helen A. Rowland
- Department of Psychiatry and Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Divya Murali
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Noel J. Buckley
- Department of Psychiatry and Kavli Institute for Nanoscience Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Noel J. Buckley, ; Shankar Subramaniam,
| | - Shankar Subramaniam
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
- Departments of Computer Science and Engineering, and Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Noel J. Buckley, ; Shankar Subramaniam,
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