Black raspberries suppress colonic adenoma development in ApcMin/+ mice: relation to metabolite profiles

Black raspberry-mediated metabolic changes in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis associated with rectal polyp regression

Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) patients face an almost certain 100% risk of developing colorectal cancer, necessitating prophylactic colectomy to prevent disease progression. A crucial goal is to hinder this progression. In a recent clinical trial involving 14 FAP patients, half received 60 g of black raspberry (BRB) powder orally and BRB suppositories at bedtime, while the other half received only BRB suppositories at bedtime over 9 months. This intervention led to a notable reduction in rectal polyps for 11 patients, although 3 showed no response. In this study, we delved into the metabolic changes induced by BRBs in the same patient cohort. Employing mass spectrometry-based non-targeted metabolomics, we analyzed pre- and post-BRB urinary and plasma samples from the 11 responders. The results showed significant alterations in 23 urinary and 6 plasma metabolites, influencing various pathways including polyamine, glutathione metabolism, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, inositol metabolism, and benzoate production. BRBs notably elevated levels of several metabolites associated with these pathways, suggesting a potential mechanism through which BRBs facilitate rectal polyp regression in FAP patients by modulating multiple metabolic pathways. Notably, metabolites derived from BRB polyphenols were significantly increased post-BRB intervention, emphasizing the potential therapeutic value of BRBs in FAP management.

Dietary Supplementation with Black Raspberries Altered the Gut Microbiome Composition in a Mouse Model of Colitis-Associated Colorectal Cancer, although with Differing Effects for a Healthy versus a Western Basal Diet

Black raspberries (BRB) are rich in anthocyanins with purported anti-inflammatory properties. However, it is not known whether dietary supplementation would ameliorate Western-diet enhanced gut inflammation and colon tumorigenesis. We employed a mouse model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) to determine the effects of dietary supplementation with 5 to 10% (w/w) whole, freeze-dried BRB in male C57BL/6J mice fed either a standard healthy diet (AIN93G) or the total Western diet (TWD). In a pilot study, BRB suppressed colitis and colon tumorigenesis while also shifting the composition of the fecal microbiome in favor of taxa with purported health benefits, including Bifidobacterium pseudolongum. In a follow-up experiment using a 2 × 2 factorial design with AIN and TWD basal diets with and without 10% (w/w) BRB, supplementation with BRB reduced tumor multiplicity and increased colon length, irrespective of the basal diet, but it did not apparently affect colitis symptoms, colon inflammation or mucosal injury based on histopathological findings. However, BRB intake increased alpha diversity, altered beta diversity and changed the relative abundance of Erysipelotrichaceae, Bifidobacteriaceae, Streptococcaceae, Rikenellaceae, Ruminococcaceae and Akkermansiaceae, among others, of the fecal microbiome. Notably, changes in microbiome profiles were inconsistent with respect to the basal diet consumed. Overall, these studies provide equivocal evidence for in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of BRB on colitis and colon tumorigenesis; yet, BRB supplementation led to dynamic changes in the fecal microbiome composition over the course of disease development.

Synergistic effects of sodium butyrate and cisplatin against cervical carcinoma in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUNDS

Cisplatin-based chemotherapy has been considered as the pivotal option for treating cervical cancer. However, some patients may present a poor prognosis due to resistance to chemotherapy. As a metabolite of natural products, sodium butyrate (NaB) could inhibit the proliferation of several malignant cells, but little is known about its combination with cisplatin in the treatment of cervical cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Flow cytometry, CCK-8 assay, and Transwell assay were utilized to analyze the cellular apoptosis, viability, cellular migration and invasion upon treating with NaB and/or cisplatin. The allograft mice model was established, followed by evaluating the tumor volume and necrotic area in mice treated with NaB and/or cisplatin. Western blot was performed for detecting protein expression involved in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the expression of MMPs. Immunohistochemical staining was conducted with the tumor sections. The transcription, expression, and cellular translocation of β-catenin were determined using luciferase reporter gene assay, Real-Time PCR, Western blot, and confocal laser scanning microscope, respectively.

RESULTS

NaB combined with cisplatin inhibited cell viability by promoting apoptosis of cervical cancer cells. In vivo experiments indicated that NaB combined with cisplatin could inhibit tumor growth and induce cancer cell necrosis. Single application of NaB activated the Wnt signaling pathway and induced partial EMT. NaB alone up-regulated MMP2, MMP7 and MMP9 expression, and promoted the migration and invasion of cervical cancer cells. The combination of cisplatin and NaB inhibited cellular migration and invasion by abrogating the nuclear transition of β-catenin, reverse EMT and down-regulate MMP2, MMP7 and MMP9. Immunohistochemical staining indicated that NaB combined with cisplatin up-regulated the expression of E-cadherin and reverse the EMT phenotype in the mice model.

CONCLUSIONS

NaB serves as a sensitizer for cisplatin, which may be a promising treatment regimen for cervical cancer when combined both. NaB alone should be utilized with caution for treating cervical cancer as it may promote the invasion and migration of cervical cancer cells.

A Black Raspberry-Rich Diet Protects From Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Intestinal Inflammation and Host Metabolic Perturbation in Association With Increased Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Ligands in the Gut Microbiota of Mice

Dietary modulation of the gut microbiota recently received considerable attention, and ligand activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) plays a pivotal role in intestinal immunity. Importantly, black raspberry (BRB, Rubus occidentalis) is associated with a variety of beneficial health effects. We aim to investigate effects of a BRB-rich diet on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced intestinal inflammation and to determine whether its consequent anti-inflammatory effects are relevant to modulation of the gut microbiota, especially its production of AHR ligands. A mouse model of DSS-induced intestinal inflammation was used in the present study. C57BL/6J mice were fed either AIN-76A or BRB diet. Composition and functions of the gut microbiota were assessed by 16S rRNA sequencing and comparative metagenome analysis. Metabolic profiles of host and the gut microbiome were assessed by serum and fecal metabolomic profiling and identification. BRB diet was found to ameliorate DSS-induced intestinal inflammation and host metabolic perturbation. BRB diet also protected from DSS-induced perturbation in diversity and composition in the gut microbiota. BRB diet promoted AHR ligand production by the gut microbiota, as revealed by increased levels of fecal AHR activity in addition to increased levels of two known AHR ligands, hemin and biliverdin. Accordingly, enrichment of bacterial genes and pathways responsible for production of hemin and biliverdin were found, specific gut bacteria that are highly correlated with abundances of hemin and biliverdin were also identified. BRB dietary intervention ameliorated intestinal inflammation in mice in association with promotion of AHR ligand production by the gut microbiota.

Dietary supplementation with black raspberries prolongs survival in ApcMin/+ mice

A diet supplemented with freeze-dried black raspberries (BRBs) has been demonstrated to modulate various biochemical and physiological pathways in both colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and Apc^Min/+ mice, which are utilized to model CRC. These changes have been previously shown to exert beneficial chemopreventive effects against CRC, with outcomes such as reduction of adenoma development and inflammation. This study aimed to assess whether these effects manifest in a meaningful change in survival rates by comparing these rates between Apc^Min/+ mice administered a 5% BRB-supplemented diet or a control AIN-76A diet. Percent survival over days elapsed was assessed in order to determine a median length of survival for each group of mice. Significant increases in survival rates with consumption of the BRB diet versus the control diet were demonstrated in both male and female mouse study groups. Male and female control groups were also compared in order to reduce confounding due to the sex of the mice; the difference in survival rates between male and female mice was not significant (p = 0.07, *p < 0.05), as male mice lived for a median of 143 days and females for 194 days. The results of this study suggest that administration of a BRB-supplemented diet may potentially prolong the lifespan and increase survival rates of colorectal cancer patients.

Protocatechuic Acid, a Gut Bacterial Metabolite of Black Raspberries, Inhibits Adenoma Development and Alters Gut Microbiome Profiles in Apc Min/+ Mice

Administration of black raspberries (BRBs) and their anthocyanin metabolites, including protocatechuic acid (PCA), has been demonstrated to exert chemopreventive effects against colorectal cancer through alteration of innate immune cell trafficking, modulation of metabolic and inflammatory pathways, etc. Previous research has shown that the gut microbiome is important in the effectiveness of chemoprevention of colorectal cancer. This study aimed to assess the potency of PCA versus BRB dietary administration for colorectal cancer prevention using an Apc Min/+ mouse model and determine how bacterial profiles change in response to PCA and BRBs. A control AIN-76A diet supplemented with 5% BRBs, 500 ppm PCA, or 1,000 ppm PCA was administered to Apc Min/+ mice. Changes in incidence, polyp number, and polyp size regarding adenomas of the small intestine and colon were assessed after completion of the diet regimen. There were significant decreases in adenoma development by dietary administration of PCA and BRBs in the small intestine and the 5% BRB-supplemented diet in the colon. Pro-inflammatory bacterial profiles were replaced with anti-inflammatory bacteria in all treatments, with the greatest effects in the 5% BRB and 500 ppm PCA-supplemented diets accompanied by decreased COX-2 and prostaglandin E2 levels in colonic mucosa. We further showed that 500 ppm PCA, but not 1,000 ppm PCA, increased IFN-γ and SMAD4 levels in primary cultured human natural killer cells. These results suggest that both BRBs and a lower dose PCA can benefit colorectal cancer patients by inhibiting the growth and proliferation of adenomas and promoting a more favorable gut microbiome condition.

Black raspberry extract shifted gut microbe diversity and their metabolic landscape in a human colonic model

Human gut microbiota is critical for human health, as their dysbiosis could lead to various diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome and obesity. Black raspberry (BRB) has been increasingly studied recently for its impact on gut microbiota as a rich source of phytochemicals (e.g., anthocyanin). To investigate the effect of BRB extract on the gut microbiota composition and their metabolism, an in-vitro human colonic model (HCM) was utilized to study the direct interaction between BRB and gut microbiome. Conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, anaerobic environment) in HCM were closely monitored and maintained to simulate the human intestinal system. Fresh fecal samples donated by three young healthy volunteers were used for gut microbiota inoculation in the HCM. 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing and liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS) based metabolomics were performed to study the impact of BRB on gut microbiota characteristics and their metabolism (fatty acids, polar metabolites, and phenolic compounds). Our data suggested that BRB intervention modulated gut microbiota at the genus level in different HCM sections mimicing ascending, transverse, and descending colons. Relative abundance of Enterococcus was commonly decreased in all colon sections, while modulations of other bacteria genera were mostly location-dependent. Meanwhile, significant changes in the metabolic profile of gut microbiota related to fatty acids, endogenous polar metabolites, and phenolic compounds were detected, in which arginine and proline metabolism, lysine degradation, and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis were mostly regulated. Moreover, we identified several significant associations between altered microbial populations and changes in microbial metabolites. In summary, our study revealed the impact of BRB intervention on gut microbiota composition and metabolism change, which may exert physiological change to host metabolism and host health.

Black raspberries attenuate colonic adenoma development in Apc Min mice: Relationship to hypomethylation of promoters and gene bodies

Recent studies have suggested that in addition to promoter region, DNA methylation in intragenic and intergenic regions also changes during physiological processes and disease. The current study showed that feeding of black raspberries (BRBs) to Apc^Min mice suppressed colon and intestinal tumors. MBDCap-seq suggested that dietary BRBs hypomethylated promoter, intragenic, and intergenic regions. Annotation of those regions highlighted genes in pathways involved in immune regulation, inflammatory signaling, production of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species, and progression of colorectal cancer. BRB phytochemicals (e.g., ellagic acid, anthocyanins, oligosaccharides) and their gut bacterial metabolites (e.g., urolithin, protocatechuic acid, short-chain fatty acids) inhibited DNMT1 and DNMT3B activities in a cell-free assay. Our results suggest that BRBs’ hypomethylating activities result from the combined effects of multiple BRB phytochemicals and their gut bacterial metabolites. Because similar substances are found in many plant products, our results with BRBs might also apply to commonly consumed fruits and vegetables.

A High-Throughput Metabolic Microarray Assay Reveals Antibacterial Effects of Black and Red Raspberries and Blackberries against Helicobacter pylori Infection

Helicobacter pylori infection is commonly treated with a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors. However, since H. pylori is becoming increasingly resistant to standard antibiotic regimens, novel treatment strategies are needed. Previous studies have demonstrated that black and red berries may have antibacterial properties. Therefore, we analyzed the antibacterial effects of black and red raspberries and blackberries on H. pylori. Freeze-dried powders and organic extracts from black and red raspberries and blackberries were prepared, and high-performance liquid chromatography was used to measure the concentrations of anthocyanins, which are considered the major active ingredients. To monitor antibiotic effects of the berry preparations on H. pylori, a high-throughput metabolic growth assay based on the Biolog system was developed and validated with the antibiotic metronidazole. Biocompatibility was analyzed using human gastric organoids. All berry preparations tested had significant bactericidal effects in vitro, with MIC₉₀ values ranging from 0.49 to 4.17%. Antimicrobial activity was higher for extracts than powders and appeared to be independent of the anthocyanin concentration. Importantly, human gastric epithelial cell viability was not negatively impacted by black raspberry extract applied at the concentration required for complete bacterial growth inhibition. Our data suggest that black and red raspberry and blackberry extracts may have potential applications in the treatment and prevention of H. pylori infection but differ widely in their MICs. Moreover, we demonstrate that the Biolog metabolic assay is suitable for high-throughput antimicrobial susceptibility screening of H. pylori.

Dysregulated Free Fatty Acid Receptor 2 Exacerbates Colonic Adenoma Formation in Apc Min/+ Mice: Relation to Metabolism and Gut Microbiota Composition

Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2) has been reported as a tumor suppressor in colon cancer development. The current study investigated the effects of FFAR2 signaling on energy metabolism and gut microbiota profiling in a colorectal cancer mouse model (Apc Min/+ ). Ffar2 deficiency promoted colonic polyp development and enhanced fatty acid oxidation and bile acid metabolism. Gut microbiome sequencing analysis showed distinct clustering among wild-type, Apc Min/+ , and Apc Min/+ -Ffar2 -/- mice. The relative abundance of Flavobacteriaceae and Verrucomicrobiaceae was significantly increased in the Apc Min/+ -Ffar2 -/- mice compared to the Apc Min/+ mice. In addition, knocking-down FFAR2 in the human colon cancer cell lines (SW480 and HT29) resulted in increased expression of several key enzymes in fatty acid oxidation, such as carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2, acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, C-2 to C-3 short chain, and hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase/3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase/enoyl-CoA hydratase, alpha subunit. Collectively, these results demonstrated that Ffar2 deficiency significantly altered profiles of fatty acid metabolites and gut microbiome, which might promote colorectal cancer development.

Reduction of colitis-associated colon carcinogenesis by a black lentil water extract through inhibition of inflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokines

The objective was to compare the impact of black lentil (BL) water and delphinidin 3-O-(2-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-α-l-arabinopyranoside) (D3G)-rich lentil extracts on tumor development, inflammation and immune response in an azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) model. C57BL/6 mice were randomly separated into four groups: healthy control (n = 6), AOM/DSS control (n = 14), AOM/DSS + BL (600 mg/kg body wt, n = 12) and AOM/DSS + D3G (41 mg/kg body wt, equivalent to D3G concentration in BL, n = 12). Mice were given treatments for 11 weeks using a voluntary jelly administration. AOM/DSS + BL presented a lower (P < 0.05) disease activity index, throughout and at the end (2.4) compared with AOM/DSS (6.3). AOM/DSS + BL mice had an average of 7.8 neoplasms versus 12.8 for the AOM/DSS (P < 0.05). Proinflammatory cytokines were downregulated in the colon mucosa: interleukin (IL)-1β (-77.5%, -70.7%) and IL-6 (-44.4%, -44.9%) by AOM/DSS + BL and AOM/DSS + D3G, respectively, compared with AOM/DSS. IL-6 protein expression was decreased by BL in plasma (-72.6%) and gene expression in colon polyps (fold change: -4.0) compared with AOM/DSS. AOM/DSS + D3G non-polyp tissue gene expression clustered with the healthy control tissue with only four genes modified (secreted phosphoprotein 1 and CXC motif chemokine ligands 2, 5 and 10). AOM/DSS + BL downregulated programmed death-ligand 1 protein expression in colon tissue (-54.7%) and gene expression by 2.8-fold compared with the AOM/DSS control. In fecal samples, gallic and protocatechuic acids and epicatechin were found, and concentration of most amino acids was lower and unsaturated fatty acids were higher for AOM/DSS + BL and AOM/DSS + D3G. BL and D3G-rich extracts showed anti-inflammatory and proimmune response effects while BL additionally prevented growth of neoplasia.

Berry polyphenols metabolism and impact on human gut microbiota and health

Berries are rich in phenolic compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonols and anthocyanins. These molecules are often reported as being responsible for the health effects attributed to berries. However, their poor bioavailability, mostly influenced by their complex chemical structures, raises the question of their actual direct impact on health. The products of their metabolization, however, may be the most bioactive compounds due to their ability to enter the blood circulation and reach the organs. The main site of metabolization of the complex polyphenols to smaller phenolic compounds is the gut through the action of microorganisms, and reciprocally polyphenols and their metabolites can also modulate the microbial populations. In healthy subjects, these modulations generally lead to an increase in Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and Akkermansia, therefore suggesting a prebiotic-like effect of the berries or their compounds. Finally, berries have been demonstrated to alleviate symptoms of gut inflammation through the modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and have chemopreventive effects towards colon cancer through the regulation of apoptosis, cell proliferation and angiogenesis. This review recapitulates the knowledge available on the interactions between berries polyphenols, gut microbiota and gut health and identifies knowledge gaps for future research.

Metabolomics applications in coronary artery disease personalized medicine

Coronary artery disease (CAD), the most common cardiovascular disease (CVD), contributes to significant mortality worldwide. CAD is a multifactorial disease wherein various factors contribute to its pathogenesis often complicating management. Biomarker based personalized medicine may provide a more effective way to individualize therapy in multifactorial diseases in general and CAD specifically. Systems' biology "Omics" biomarkers have been investigated for this purpose. These biomarkers provide a more comprehensive understanding on pathophysiology of the disease process and can help in identifying new therapeutic targets and tailoring therapy to achieve optimum outcome. Metabolomics biomarkers usually reflect genetic and non-genetic factors involved in the phenotype. Metabolomics analysis may provide better understanding of the disease pathogenesis and drug response variation. This will help in guiding therapy, particularly for multifactorial diseases such as CAD. In this chapter, advances in metabolomics analysis and its role in personalized medicine will be reviewed with comprehensive focus on CAD. Assessment of risk, diagnosis, complications, drug response and nutritional therapy will be discussed. Together, this chapter will review the current application of metabolomics in CAD management and highlight areas that warrant further investigation.

Chemopreventive Effect of Dietary Anthocyanins against Gastrointestinal Cancers: A Review of Recent Advances and Perspectives

Anthocyanins are a group of dietary polyphenols, abundant mainly in fruits and their products. Dietary interventions of anthocyanins are being studied extensively related to the prevention of gastrointestinal (GI) cancer, among many other chronic disorders. This review summarizes the hereditary and non-hereditary characteristics of GI cancers, chemistry, and bioavailability of anthocyanins, and the most recent findings of anthocyanin in GI cancer prevention through modulating cellular signaling pathways. GI cancer-preventive attributes of anthocyanins are primarily due to their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-proliferative properties, and their ability to regulate gene expression and metabolic pathways, as well as induce the apoptosis of cancer cells.

Transplanting fecal material from wild-type mice fed black raspberries alters the immune system of recipient mice

By constantly stimulating intestinal immunity, gut microbes play important regulatory roles, and their possible involvement in human physical and mental disorders beyond intestinal diseases suggests the importance of maintaining homeostasis in the gut microbiota. Both transplantation of fecal microbiota and dietary interventions have been shown to restore microbial homeostasis in recipients. In the current study with wild-type mice, we combined these two approaches to determine if transplanting fecal material from mice fed black raspberries (BRB, 5%) altered recipients' immune system. The donors received a control or 5% BRB diet, and fecal transplantation was performed every other day 15 times into recipients fed control diet. Afterward, we used flow cytometry to analyze populations of CD3+ T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T cells, and NK cells among bone marrow cells, splenocytes, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) collected from the recipients. We found that BRB-fecal material that contained both fecal microbiota and their metabolites increased NK cell populations among bone marrow cells, splenocytes, and PBMCs, and raised levels of CD8+ T cells in splenocytes. Our findings suggest that fecal transplantation can modulate the immune system and might therefore be valuable for managing a range of physical and mental disorders.

Anti-colonic Inflammation by Black Raspberries through Regulating Toll-like Receptor-4 Signaling in Interlukin-10 Knockout Mice

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the colon, with a steadily rising prevalence in Western and newly industrialized countries. UC patients have a cancer incidence as high as 10% after 20 years of the disease. Although the importance of fruits and vegetables in defense against UC is beginning to be appreciated, the mechanisms remain largely unclear. In the current study, we reported that dietary black raspberries (BRBs) decreased colonic inflammation in the mucosa and submucosa of interleukin (IL)-10 knockout (KO) mice. We then used colon, spleen, and plasma from those mice to investigate whether BRBs exert their anti-inflammatory effects by correcting dysregulated toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 signaling to downregulate prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Other studies reported that spleen is the reservoir of macrophages and depletion of macrophages in IL-10 KO mice prevents the development of colitis. Our results showed that BRBs decreased the percentages of macrophages in spleens of IL-10 KO mice. Moreover, mechanistically, the BRB diet corrected dysregulated TLR-4 signaling in cells from the colon and spleen, decreased PGE2 and prostaglandin I2, and increased 15-lipoxygenase and its product, 13-S-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid, in plasma of IL-10 KO mice. Therefore, we have elucidated one of the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of BRBs, and have identified biomarkers that could be indicators of response in UC patients treated with them. Our findings with BRBs could well apply to many other commonly consumed fruits and vegetables.

Free Fatty Acid Receptors 2 and 3 as Microbial Metabolite Sensors to Shape Host Health: Pharmacophysiological View

The role of the gut microbiome in human health is becoming apparent. The major functional impact of the gut microbiome is transmitted through the microbial metabolites that are produced in the gut and interact with host cells either in the local gut environment or are absorbed into circulation to impact distant cells/organs. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are the major microbial metabolites that are produced in the gut through the fermentation of non-digestible fibers. SCFAs are known to function through various mechanisms, however, their signaling through free fatty acid receptors 2 and 3 (FFAR2/3; type of G-coupled protein receptors) is a new therapeutic approach. FFAR2/3 are widely expressed in diverse cell types in human and mice, and function as sensors of SCFAs to change several physiological and cellular functions. FFAR2/3 modulate neurological signaling, energy metabolism, intestinal cellular homeostasis, immune response, and hormone synthesis. FFAR2/3 function through Gi and/or Gq signaling, that is mediated through specific structural features of SCFAs-FFAR2/3 bindings and modulating specific signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the wide-spread expression and structural homologies between human and mice FFAR2/3, and their role in different human health conditions. This information can unlock opportunities to weigh the potential of FFAR2/3 as a drug target to prevent human diseases.

Black raspberries suppress pancreatic cancer through modulation of NKp46+, CD8+, and CD11b+ immune cells

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a fatal disease with a low survival rate (9%). Epidemiologic studies show that healthy dietary patterns enriched of fruits and vegetables lower the risk of PDAC. We previously showed that supplementing black raspberries (BRBs) to patients with colorectal cancer increased tumor-infiltrating NK cells and their cytotoxicity. We aimed to determine whether BRBs combat PDAC by modulating cancer immunity. NOD.SCID mice lacking T and B cells were injected with human Panc-1-Luc cells orthotopically, and immunocompetent Kras ^LSL.G12D/+ -Trp53 ^LSL.R172H/+ -Pdx-1-Cre mice were fed BRBs. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from PDAC patients were treated with butyrate, a microbial metabolite of BRBs. The absence of T and B cells did not dampen BRBs' anti-tumor effects in the NOD.SCID mice. In the Kras ^LSL.G12D/+ -Trp53 ^LSL.R172H/+ -Pdx-1-Cre mice, BRBs significantly prolonged survival (189 days versus 154 days). In both models, BRBs decreased tumor-infiltrating CD11b⁺ cells and the expression of IL-1β, sEH, and Ki67. BRBs also increased tumor-infiltrating NKp46⁺ cells and the expression of CD107a, a functional marker of cytolytic NK and CD8⁺ T cells. In Kras ^LSL.G12D/+ -Trp53 ^LSL.R172H/+ -Pdx-1-Cre mice, tumor infiltration of CD8⁺ T cells was increased by BRBs. Further using the PBMCs from PDAC patients, we show that butyrate decreased the population of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Butyrate also reversed CD11b⁺ cell-mediated suppression on CD8⁺ T cells. Interestingly, there is a negative association between MDSC changes and patients' survival, suggesting that the more decrease in MDSC population induced by butyrate treatment, the longer the patient had survived. Our study suggests the immune-modulating potentials of BRBs in PDAC.

Malvidin 3-Glucoside Modulated Gut Microbial Dysbiosis and Global Metabolome Disrupted in a Murine Colitis Model Induced by Dextran Sulfate Sodium

SCOPE

This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms of the anthocyanin malvidin 3-glucoside (MV) in alleviating gut dysbiosis using a murine colitis model induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS).

METHODS AND RESULTS

The effect of MV on the structure and function of the colon microbiome and microbial metabolism is evaluated using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, global metabolomics, and a network algorithm based on the random-matrix theory. MV ingestion improved histopathological scores and increased IL10 expression in the colon mucosa of colitis mice. While DSS has a profound effect on the gut microbiome and significantly decreases both microbial richness and evenness, MV further reduces evenness but promotes microbial interactions and restores the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio repressed by DSS. Moreover, MV reduces the abundance of pathogenic bacteria, such as Ruminococcus gnavus, in colitis mice and has a strong modulatory effect on microbial co-occurrence patterns and gut metabolites. In addition, MV reverses several key inflammatory mediators, including sphingolipid metabolites, from elevated levels in DSS colitis mice. As a bioactive ingredient, MV exerts its effect on the gut microbiome in a mechanism that differs from the whole blueberry.

CONCLUSION

MV ingestion ameliorates intestinal inflammation by modulating colon epithelium integrity, gut microbiome, and key inflammatory mediators.

Polyphenols: Immunomodulatory and Therapeutic Implication in Colorectal Cancer

Polyphenolic compounds, widely present in fruits, vegetables, and cereals, have potential benefits for human health and are protective agents against the development of chronic/degenerative diseases including cancer. More recently these bioactive molecules have been gaining great interest as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory agents, mainly in neoplasia where the pro-inflammatory context might promote carcinogenesis. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is considered a major public healthy issue, a leading cause of cancer mortality and morbidity worldwide. Epidemiological, pre-clinical and clinical investigations have consistently highlighted important relationships between large bowel inflammation, gut microbiota (GM), and colon carcinogenesis. Many experimental studies and clinical evidence suggest that polyphenols have a relevant role in CRC chemoprevention, exhibit cytotoxic capability vs. CRC cells and induce increased sensitization to chemo/radiotherapies. These effects are most likely related to the immunomodulatory properties of polyphenols able to modulate cytokine and chemokine production and activation of immune cells. In this review we summarize recent advancements on immunomodulatory activities of polyphenols and their ability to counteract the inflammatory tumor microenvironment. We focus on potential role of natural polyphenols in increasing the cell sensitivity to colon cancer therapies, highlighting the polyphenol-based combined treatments as innovative immunomodulatory strategies to inhibit the growth of CRC.

The application of ApcMin/+ mouse model in colorectal tumor researches

PURPOSE

Apc^Min/+ mouse is an excellent animal model bearing multiple intestinal neoplasia, used to simulate human familial adenomatous polyposis and colorectal tumors. The key point of this model is the mutation of Apc gene, which is a significant tumor-suppressor gene in the Wnt signaling pathway. There are also some other possible mechanisms responsible for the development of colorectal tumors in the Apc^Min/+ mouse model, such as tumor-associated signaling pathways activation, the changes of tumor-related genes, and the involvement of some related proteins or molecules.

METHODS

The relevant literatures about Apc^Min/+ mouse model from PUBMED databases are reviewed in this study.

RESULTS

In recent years, increasing studies have focused on the application of Apc^Min/+ mouse model in colorectal tumor, trying to find effective therapeutic targets for further use.

CONCLUSION

This article will give a brief review on the related molecular mechanisms of the Apc^Min/+ mouse model and its application in colorectal tumor researches.

Dietary Black Raspberries Impact the Colonic Microbiome and Phytochemical Metabolites in Mice

SCOPE

Black raspberries (BRB) are a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals, including anthocyanins and ellagitannins. These phytochemicals are poorly absorbed and may be transformed by gut microbiota into various metabolites that may impact the colonic mucosa or upon absorption have systemic bioactivity. The objective of this study is to define the impact of a BRB-containing diet on the colon microbiome in mice and quantify the phytochemical metabolites in the colon contents and circulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Male mice were fed 10% w/w freeze-dried BRB powder for 6 weeks. The colonic microbiota was evaluated by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Anthocyanin and ellagitannin metabolites, protocatechuic acid, and urolithins were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS. The BRB diet impacted colon mucosal microbial composition with a more robust effect observed on the luminal microflora. BRB-derived protocatechuic acid and urolithins were quantified in the colon, luminal contents, plasma, liver, and prostate with protocatechuic acid present in higher concentrations compared to urolithins.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the complex interactions between dietary phytochemicals, the host microbiome, and metabolism. It is demonstrated that microbially produced phytochemical metabolites are present in the colon and systemic circulation where they may exert biological activity.

A nutrigenetic approach for investigating the chemopreventive effects of black raspberries during the development of preneoplastic esophagi in rats

BACKGROUND

Large epidemiological studies have shown that diets high in fruits reduce the risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC).

OBJECTIVE

The current study investigated the effects of black raspberries (BRBs) on gene expression during the development of preneoplastic esophagi in rats.

METHODS

Using a post-initiation protocol, F344 rats were injected with N-nitrosomethylbenzylamine (NMBA) and then fed either a control diet or 5% BRBs. At weeks 9, 15, and 35, we euthanized subgroups of the rats and collected preneoplastic esophagi to isolate RNA samples for DNA microarray.

RESULTS

Along the development of NMBA-induced preneoplastic esophagi, NMBA injections led to differential expression of 1181 genes comparing to control rats, and dietary BRBs modulated 428 genes in esophagi from NMBA-treated rats. There are 137 common genes between 1181 and 428 gene sets, and BRBs significantly reversed the expression of 133 genes. These genes are associated with multiple gene oncology functions. BRBs induced an 8.8-fold gene enrichment on the pathway of inflammatory response and regulated 10 genes involved in this pathway. Among them, BRBs significantly reversed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as CCL2, S100A8, and IL19.

CONCLUSIONS

BRBs exhibit strong anti-inflammatory effects against NMBA-induced rat esophageal tumorigenesis.

Relevance of functional foods in the Mediterranean diet: the role of olive oil, berries and honey in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases

The traditional Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) is a well-known dietary pattern associated with longevity and improvement of life quality as it reduces the risk of the most common chronic pathologies, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), that represent the principal cause of death worldwide. One of the most characteristic foods of MedDiet is olive oil, a very complex matrix, which constitutes the main source of fats and is used in the preparation of foods, both raw as an ingredient in recipes, and in cooking. Similarly, strawberries and raspberries are tasty and powerful foods which are commonly consumed in the Mediterranean area in fresh and processed forms and have attracted the scientific and consumer attention worldwide for their beneficial properties for human health. Besides olive oil and berries, honey has lately been introduced in the MedDiet thanks to its relevant nutritional, phytochemical and antioxidant profile. It is a sweet substance that has recently been classified as a functional food. The aim of this review is to present and discuss the recent evidence, obtained from in vitro, in vivo and epidemiological studies, on the potential roles exerted by these foods in the prevention and progression of different types of cancer and CVDs.

Impact of dietary gut microbial metabolites on the epigenome

Within the past decade, epigenetic mechanisms and their modulation by natural products have gained increasing interest. Dietary bioactive compounds from various sources, including green tea, soya, fruit and berries, cruciferous vegetables, whole grain foods, fish and others, have been shown to target enzymes involved in epigenetic gene regulation, including DNA methyltransferases, histone acetyltransferases, deacetylases and demethylases in vitro and in cell culture. Also, many dietary agents were shown to alter miRNA expression. In vivo studies in animal models and humans are still limited. Recent research has indicated that the gut microbiota and gut microbial metabolites might be important mediators of diet-epigenome interactions. Inter-individual differences in the gut microbiome might affect release, metabolism and bioavailability of dietary agents and explain variability in response to intervention in human studies. Only a few microbial metabolites, including folate, phenolic acids, S-(-)equol, urolithins, isothiocyanates, and short- and long-chain fatty acids have been tested with respect to their potential to influence epigenetic mechanisms. Considering that a complex mixture of intermediary and microbial metabolites is present in human circulation, a more systematic interdisciplinary investigation of nutri-epigenetic activities and their impact on human health is called for.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Frontiers in epigenetic chemical biology'.

Colon Cancer: What We Eat

A higher incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) is observed in Oceania and Europe, whereas Africa and Asia have a lower incidence. CRC is largely preventable by adapting a healthy lifestyle, such as healthy diet, adequate physical activity, and avoiding obesity. This review summarizes the latest work available, mainly epidemiologic studies, to examine the relationship between diet and CRC. Higher intake of red/processed meat could increase the CRC risk, whereas fibers, especially from whole grains and cereals, as well as fruit and vegetables may decrease the CRC risk. Heterogeneity and inconsistency among studies or individuals, however, need to be taken into consideration.

Loss of FFAR2 promotes colon cancer by epigenetic dysregulation of inflammation suppressors

Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2, also named GPR43), is activated by short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as butyrate, that are produced when gut bacteria ferment dietary fiber. FFAR2 has been suggested to regulate colonic inflammation, which is a major risk factor for the development of colon cancer and is also linked to epigenetic dysregulation in colon carcinogenesis. The current study assessed whether FFAR2, acting as an epigenetic regulator, protects against colon carcinogenesis. To mimic the mild inflammation that promotes human colon cancer, we treated mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) overnight, which avoids excessive inflammation but induces mild inflammation that promotes colon carcinogenesis in the Apc^Min/+ and the azoxymethane (AOM)-treated mice. Our results showed that FFAR2 deficiency promotes the development of colon adenoma in the Apc^Min/+ /DSS mice and the progression of adenoma to adenocarcinoma in the AOM/DSS mice. FFAR2's downstream cAMP-PKA-CREB pathway was enhanced, leading to overexpression of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in the FFAR2-deficient mice. ChIP-qPCR analysis revealed differential binding of H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 histone marks onto the promoter regions of inflammation suppressors (e.g., sfrp1, dkk3, socs1), resulting in decreased expression of these genes in the FFAR2-deficient mice. Also, more neutrophils infiltrated into tumors and colon lamina propria of the FFAR2-deficient mice. Depletion of neutrophils blocked the progression of colon tumors. In addition, FFAR2 is required for butyrate to suppress HDAC expression and hypermethylation of inflammation suppressors. Therefore, our results suggest that FFAR2 is an epigenetic tumor suppressor that acts at multiple stages of colon carcinogenesis.

Gut bacteria are required for the benefits of black raspberries in Apc Min/+ mice

BACKGROUND

The gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in the development of inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the gut microbiota is required for the chemoprotective effects of black raspberries (BRBs) in Apc ^Min/+ mice.

METHODS

Apc ^Min/+ mice were given (a) a control diet for 8 weeks, or (b) the control diet for 4 weeks and then a 5% BRB diet for additional 4 weeks, or (c) the control diet and antibiotics for 4 weeks followed by the 5% BRB diet and antibiotics for the next 4 weeks. At the end of the study, all the mice were euthanized, and colonic and intestinal polyps were counted. mRNA expression levels of TLR4, NF-κB1, and COX2 were determined in colon and small intestine of these Apc ^Min/+ mice by quantitative real-time PCR.

RESULTS

5% BRBs significantly suppressed intestinal and colonic polyp development in the Apc ^Min/+ mice, whereas antibiotics significantly abolished BRBs' chemoprotective effects. BRBs decreased mRNA levels of TLR4, NF-κB1, and COX2 in colon, whereas significantly enhanced mRNA levels of TLR4 and NF-κB1 were observed in small intestine of BRB-treated Apc ^Min/+ mice fed antibiotics.

CONCLUSIONS

The gut microbiota is required for BRBs' chemoprotection against polyp development in Apc ^Min/+ mice.

Inhibition of the development of N-nitrosomethylbenzylamine-induced esophageal tumors in rats by strawberries and aspirin, alone and in combination

BACKGROUND

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is one of two subtypes of esophageal cancer, with high incidence and mortality rates in developing countries.

OBJECTIVE

The current study investigated the potential chemoprotective effects of strawberries and aspirin against the development of rat esophageal papillomas, the precursors to ESCC.

METHODS

Using a prevention model, we administered study diets to rats before, during, and after N-nitrosomethylbenzylamine (NMBA) treatment. The effects of the four diets were evaluated: the control diet, 5% strawberry powder in the control diet, 0.01% aspirin in the drinking water, and the combination of strawberries and aspirin. At week 25, we euthanized all the rats and collected their esophagi to quantify tumor incidence, multiplicity, and burden, as well as for molecular analysis.

RESULTS

Both strawberries and aspirin significantly decreased esophageal tumor multiplicity, with the combination causing the most robust suppression. Aspirin alone and the combination decreased the total tumor burden in the esophagus. None of the diets had a significant effect on tumor incidence or the expression of COX-1 and COX-2. Strawberries and aspirin, alone and in combination, significantly suppressed squamous epithelial cell proliferation (PCNA).

CONCLUSIONS

Strawberries, aspirin, and their combination exhibit chemoprotective effects against NMBA-induced esophageal tumors in rats.

An immunological perspective for preventing cancer with berries

Berries and their phytochemicals have well documented chemopreventive roles, but understanding their ability to regulate cancer immunology is only beginning to be explored. The literature, including human studies, suggests that berry components can modulate our immune system to delay cancer development. Moreover, their wide spectrum of phytochemicals suggests that they might influence the functions of multiple immune cells and different aspects of cancer immunity. Cancer immune-therapies are showing promise for some types of cancer because they boost T cells' ability to recognize tumor cells - an essential prelude to destruction. Recognition occurs after dendritic cells present antigen, such as tumor antigen, to T cells, generating an adaptive response. Therefore, the potential of berries to aid cancer immune-therapies by, for example, regulating dendritic cells, warrants further investigation in animal and human studies. More information is also needed about berries' effects on the entire spectrum of immunity so that a comprehensive view can inform efforts to use berries to enhance immune responses during cancer prevention and treatment. This review summarizes the effects of berries as anti-tumor agents from the immunological perspective in tumor-bearing animals and humans.

Cancer-preventive Properties of an Anthocyanin-enriched Sweet Potato in the APCMIN Mouse Model

Background

Anthocyanin-rich foods and preparations have been reported to reduce the risk of life-style related diseases, including cancer. The SL222 sweet potato, a purple-fleshed cultivar developed in New Zealand, accumulates high levels of anthocyanins in its storage root.

Methods

We examined the chemopreventative properties of the SL222 sweet potato in the C57BL/6J-APC^MIN/+ (APC^MIN) mouse, a genetic model of colorectal cancer. APC^MIN and C57BL/6J wild-type mice (n=160) were divided into four feeding groups consuming diets containing 10% SL222 sweet potato flesh, 10% SL222 sweet potato skin, or 0.12% ARE (Anthocyanin rich-extract prepared from SL222 sweet potato at a concentration equivalent to the flesh-supplemented diet) or a control diet (AIN-76A) for 18 weeks. At 120 days of age, the mice were anaesthetised, and blood samples were collected before the mice were sacrificed. The intestines were used for adenoma enumeration.

Results

The SL222 sweet potato-supplemented diets reduced the adenoma number in the APC^MIN mice.

Conclusions

These data have significant implications for the use of this sweet potato variant in protection against colorectal cancer.

Black Raspberries Enhance Natural Killer Cell Infiltration into the Colon and Suppress the Progression of Colorectal Cancer

Natural killer (NK) cells are an essential component of innate immunity against cancer development. Many studies have been conducted to evaluate immune-modulating effects using dietary compounds. Our laboratory has been investigating the chemopreventive potential of black raspberries (BRBs) and previously demonstrated their beneficial modulation of genetic and epigenetic biomarkers in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). The current study investigated their potential on modulating NK cells. To avoid the excessive inflammation caused by the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) treatment that leads to colitis, we treated the mice with overnight DSS so that it would slightly irritate the colon but still promote colon carcinogenesis with 100% incidence in both the Apc^Min/+ mice and azoxymethane (AOM)-treated mice. A significant decrease of tissue-infiltrating NK cells along the progression of microadenoma-to-adenoma and adenoma-to-adenocarcinoma was observed in the Apc^Min/+ /DSS and AOM/DSS mice, respectively. Depletion of NK cells significantly promoted the development of CRC, suggesting a critical role of NK cells in combating CRC progression. BRBs significantly suppressed the CRC progression and increased the number of tissue-infiltrating NK cells in both mouse models. Moreover, we further determined BRBs' effects on NK cells in the human biopsy specimens collected from our previously completed clinical trial, in which CRC patients consumed BRBs for an average of 4 weeks during a presurgical window. We observed an increased number and an enhanced cytotoxicity of NK cells by BRB intervention. The current study provides evidence that BRBs have the potential to enhance the tumor immunesurveillance of NK cells that can be beneficial in the setting of CRC prevention and treatment.

Black Raspberries and Their Anthocyanin and Fiber Fractions Alter the Composition and Diversity of Gut Microbiota in F-344 Rats

Natural compounds can alter the diversity and composition of the gut microbiome, potentially benefiting our health. We previously demonstrated chemopreventive effects of black raspberries (BRBs) in colorectal cancer, which is associated with gut dysbiosis. To investigate the effects of whole BRBs and their fractions on gut microbiota, we fed F-344 rats a control diet, 5% BRBs, the BRB anthocyanin fraction, or the BRB residue fraction for 6 weeks. Feces were collected at baseline and at weeks 3 and 6, and bacterial sequence counts were analyzed. We observed distinct patterns of microbiota from different diet groups. Beta diversity analysis suggested that all diet groups exerted time-dependent changes in the bacterial diversity. Hierarchical clustering analysis revealed that post-diet fecal microbiota was segregated from baseline fecal microbiota within each diet. It is interesting to note that fractions of BRBs induced different changes in gut bacteria compared to whole BRBs. The abundance of specific microbial species known to have anti-inflammatory effects, such as Akkermansia and Desulfovibrio, was increased by whole BRBs and their residue. Further, butyrate-producing bacteria, e.g., Anaerostipes, were increased by whole BRBs. Our results suggest that whole BRBs and their fractions alter the gut microbiota in ways that could significantly influence human health.

Systemic Metabolite Changes in Wild-type C57BL/6 Mice Fed Black Raspberries

INTRODUCTION

Freeze-dried black raspberries (BRBs) elicit chemopreventive effects against colorectal cancer in humans and in rodents. The objective of this study was to investigate potential BRB-caused metabolite changes using wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

WT mice were fed either control diet or control diet supplemented with 5% BRBs for 8 wk. A nontargeted metabolomic analysis was conducted on colonic mucosa, liver, and fecal specimens collected from both diet groups. BRBs significantly changed the levels of 41 colonic mucosa metabolites, 40 liver metabolites, and 34 fecal metabolites compared to control diet-fed mice. BRBs reduced 34 lipid metabolites in colonic mucosa and increased levels of amino acids in liver. One metabolite, 3-[3-(sulfooxy) phenyl] propanoic acid, might be a useful biomarker of BRB consumption. In addition, BRB powder was found to contain 30-fold higher levels of linolenate compared to control diets. Consistently, multiple omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs), including stearidonate, docosapentaenoate (ω-3 DPA), eicosapentaenoate (EPA), and docosahexaenoate (DHA), were significantly elevated in livers of BRB-fed mice.

CONCLUSION

The data from the current study suggest that BRBs produce systemic metabolite changes in multiple tissue matrices, supporting our hypothesis that BRBs may serve as both a chemopreventive agent and a beneficial dietary supplement.

Berries and other natural products in the pancreatic cancer chemoprevention in human clinical trials

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) was the 12^th and 11^th most common cancer in men and women worldwide in 2012, with the highest incidence in North America and Europe and the lowest in Africa and Asia. Due to the lack of efficient early diagnosis and rapid disease progression, PDAC patients have a 5-year survival rate of just 5%. Epidemiological studies suggest that smoking, obesity, type II diabetes, and pancreatitis are common risk factors for PDAC development. By contrast, high intake of fresh fruit, vegetables, and nuts rich in phytochemicals could reduce PDAC risk. This review summarizes the human clinical studies that have used berries or other natural products for chemoprevention of PDAC. Developing chemopreventive agents against PDAC would be tremendously valuable for the high-risk population and patients with premalignant lesions. Although some clinical trials of these agents have been completed, most are in early phases, and the results are not promising, which may be due to administration of the natural products at advanced stages of PDAC. Thus, further mechanistic studies using genetic animal models that recapitulate the tumor microenvironment and immunology of human PDAC would be informative for selecting an effective window for intervention with berries or other natural compounds.

Loss of free fatty acid receptor 2 enhances colonic adenoma development and reduces the chemopreventive effects of black raspberries in ApcMin/+ mice

We previously showed that black raspberries (BRBs) have beneficial effects in human colorectal cancer and a mouse model of colorectal cancer (Apc^Min/+). The current study investigated the role of free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2) in colon carcinogenesis and whether the FFAR2 signaling pathway contributes to BRB-mediated chemoprevention in mice. FFAR2 (also named GPR43) is a member of the G-protein-coupled receptor family that is expressed in leukocytes and colon. Apc^Min/+ and Apc^Min/+-FFAR2^-/- mice were given a control diet or the control diet supplemented with 5% BRBs for 8 weeks. FFAR2 deficiency promoted colonic polyp development, with 100% incidence and increased polyp number and size. The Apc^Min/+ mice developed colonic tubular adenoma, whereas the Apc^Min/+-FFAR2^-/- mice developed colonic tubular adenoma with high-grade dysplasia. FFAR2 deficiency also enhanced the cAMP-PKA-CREB-HDAC pathway, downstream of FFAR2 signaling, and increased activation of the Wnt pathway, and raised the percentage of GR-1⁺ neutrophils in colonic lamina propria (LP) and increased infiltration of GR-1⁺ neutrophils into colonic polyps. BRBs suppressed colonic polyp development and inhibited the cAMP-PKA-CREB-HDAC and Wnt pathways in the Apc^Min/+ mice but not the Apc^Min/+-FFAR2^-/- mice. They also increased the percentage of GR-1⁺ neutrophils and cytokine secretion in colonic LP and decreased the infiltration of GR-1⁺ neutrophils and IL-1β expression in colon polyps of Apc^Min/+ mice but not Apc^Min/+-FFAR2^-/- mice. These results suggest that loss of FFAR2 drives colon tumorigenesis and that BRBs require functional FFAR2 to be chemopreventive. BRBs have the potential to modulate the host immune system, thereby enhancing the antitumor immune microenvironment.

Protective Role of Dietary Berries in Cancer

Dietary patterns, including regular consumption of particular foods such as berries as well as bioactive compounds, may confer specific molecular and cellular protection in addition to the overall epidemiologically observed benefits of plant food consumption (lower rates of obesity and chronic disease risk), further enhancing health. Mounting evidence reports a variety of health benefits of berry fruits that are usually attributed to their non-nutritive bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic substances such as flavonoids or anthocyanins. Although it is still unclear which particular constituents are responsible for the extended health benefits, it appears that whole berry consumption generally confers some anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory protection to humans and animals. With regards to cancer, studies have reported beneficial effects of berries or their constituents including attenuation of inflammation, inhibition of angiogenesis, protection from DNA damage, as well as effects on apoptosis or proliferation rates of malignant cells. Berries extend effects on the proliferation rates of both premalignant and malignant cells. Their effect on premalignant cells is important for their ability to cause premalignant lesions to regress both in animals and in humans. The present review focuses primarily on in vivo and human dietary studies of various berry fruits and discusses whether regular dietary intake of berries can prevent cancer initiation and delay progression in humans or ameliorate patients’ cancer status.