Immunology and homeopathy. 1. Historical background

Satisfaction with Homeopathic Service and Care for Persons with Spinal Cord Injury

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to investigate the satisfaction of individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) with a homeopathic service at an SCI rehabilitation center.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional questionnaire study was performed at an SCI rehabilitation center in Switzerland. It included patients with chronic SCI who presented themselves to a homeopathic service offered by the hospital in a 12-months period. The participants filled in standardized questionnaires in German: "Measure Yourself Medical Outcome Profile" (MYMOP), Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire for Medication (TSQM-9), the European Project on Patient Evaluation of General Practice Care (EUROPEP) questionnaire, and a self-administered questionnaire.

RESULTS

The data of 14 patients were analyzed. Symptom severity as well as bother by the symptoms that led to homeopathic treatment decreased under homeopathic treatment (severity: from 4.3 to 3.3; bother: from 4.2 to 2.9) and remained lower over time (severity: 2.6; bother: 2.7), suggesting a sustained effect. Irrespective of the test instrument used, satisfaction rates were higher for homeopathic service than for homeopathic medication, which was rated as successful by 50% of the participants.

CONCLUSION

Persons with SCI suffering from secondary complications of SCI who accessed homeopathic care reported high satisfaction rates with the service. Therefore, homeopathic service can be considered as an additive measure in persons with SCI suffering from recurrent symptoms.

Hintergrund

Evaluierung der Zufriedenheit von Personen mit Querschnittlähmung (QSL) mit einer homöopathischen Betreuung an einem Rehabilitationszentrum für QSL.

Patient*innen und Methodik

An einem Rehabilitationszentrum für QSL in der Schweiz wurde eine Querschnittserhebung mittels Fragebögen durchgeführt. Eingeschlossen wurden Personen mit chronischer QSL, die sich in einer von der Klinik angebotenen homöopathischen Sprechstunde in einem 12-Monats-Intervall vorstellten. Die Teilnehmenden füllten standardisierte Fragebogen in deutscher Sprache aus: "Measure Yourself Medical Outcome Profile" (MYMOP), Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire for Medication (TSQM-9), den "European Project on Patient Evaluation of General Practice Care (EUROPEP)" Fragebogen sowie einen selbst-erstellten Fragebogen.

Ergebnisse

Die Daten von 14 Teilnehmenden wurden ausgewertet. Der Schweregrad der Symptome sowie die Belastung durch die Symptome die zur homöopathischen Behandlung geführt haben, wurden unter der homöopathischen Therapie geringer (Schweregrad: von 4.3 auf 3.3; Belastung: von 4.2 auf 2.9) und blieben über den Untersuchungszeitraum geringer (Schweregrad: 2.6; Belastung 2.7), was einen anhaltenden Effekt nahelegt. Unabhängig von dem verwendeten Testinstrument waren die Zufriedenheitsraten für die homöopathische Betreuung höher als diejenigen für die homöopathische Medikation, die von 50% der Teilnehmenden als erfolgreich bewertet wurde.

Schlussfolgerung

Personen mit QSL, die wegen Sekundärkomplikationen eine homöopathische Sprechstunde aufsuchten, berichteten eine hohe Zufriedenheit mit dieser Betreuung. Daher kann eine homöopathische Betreuung als zusätzliche Massnahme bei Personen mit QSL mit persistierender Symptomatik in Betracht gezogen werden.

Toxicological assessment compilation of selected examples of raw materials for homeopathic and anthroposophic medicinal products - Part 2

The present successor article comprises more than 180 substances representing a continuative compilation of toxicologically evaluated starting materials prompted by the wide use and high number of homeopathic and anthroposophic medicinal products (HMP) on the market together with the broad spectrum of active substances of botanical, mineral, chemical or animal origin contained therein, and by the equally important requirement of applying adequate safety principles as with conventional human medicinal products in line with the European regulatory framework. The February 2019 issue of the Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology journal includes the antecedent article bearing the same title and entailing safety evaluations of more than 170 raw materials processed in HMP. This part 2 article highlights scientific evaluation following recognized methods used in toxicology with a view to drug-regulatory authority's assessment principles and practice in the context of HMP, and offers useful systematic, scientifically substantiated and simultaneously pragmatic approaches in differentiated HMP risk assessment. As a unique feature, both articles provide the most extensive publicly available systematic compilation of a considerable number of substances processed in HMP as a transparent resource for applicants, pharmaceutical manufacturers, the scientific community and healthcare authorities to actively support regulatory decision making in practice.

¿Qué es la medicina alternativa, complementaria e integrativa?

El concepto de medicina alternativa fue creado por la medicina occidental para identificar prácticas médicas diferentes a la medicina convencional, tales como la medicina tradicional china y acupuntura, homeopatía, terapia neural, medicina osteopática y quiropráctica, medicina ayurveda y la medicina tradicional indígena, que también tienen fundamentos filosóficos, científicos y terapéuticos. Desafortunadamente, con el tiempo se estableció la creencia de que la medicina alternativa comprende todas las prácticas médicas que no son parte de la medicina convencional, lo que ha causado muchas inexactitudes y controversias. La medicina surgió como necesidad de auto preservación del ser humano y que considera a la salud como bienestar completo y a la enfermedad, como pérdida de esta condición. A lo largo de su evolución han emergido diversas racionalidades y algunas de ellas se han convertido en sistemas médicos. La medicina convencional se estructuró en Occidente, fundamentada en racionalidades médicas existentes para la época y enfocada en modificar la enfermedad, lo que resultó en marcadas diferencias conceptuales con sistemas de tratamiento ya existentes que se centraban en el individuo y en modificar los procesos de la enfermedad. Todos los sistemas médicos han generado un impacto en diversos campos sociales. Asimismo, han surgido tendencias y estrategias de integración de la medicina convencional con otros sistemas médicos comoLa electroacupuntura de Voll, la homotoxicología, el balance polar electromagnético, la antroposofía, la sintergética y la biofotónica. Actualmente se considera que el objetivo de la medicina es integrar y complementar conocimientos de diferentes racionalidades médicas dentro del concepto de una sola medicina. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, el objetivo del presente artículo es clarificar los conceptos de las diferentes formas de medicina, plantear algunas definiciones al respecto, y proponer una definición de medicina alternativa, complementaria e integrativa.

The Electrostatic Model of Homeopathy: The Mechanism of Physicochemical Activities of Homeopathic Medicines

This paper attempts to propose a model, called the electrostatic model of homeopathy, to explain a mechanism for the physicochemical activities of highly diluted homeopathic medicines (HMs). According to this proposed model, the source of HMs' action is dipole orientations as electrostatic imprints of the original molecules carried by diluent molecules (such as sugar molecules) or potentization-induced aqueous nanostructures. The nanoscale domains' contact charging and dielectric hysteresis play critical roles in the aqueous nanostructures' or sugar molecules' acquisition of the original molecules' dipole orientations. The mechanical stress induced by dynamization (vigorous agitation or trituration) is a crucial factor that facilitates these phenomena. After dynamization is completed, the transferred charges revert to their previous positions but, due to dielectric hysteresis, they leave a remnant polarization on the aqueous nanostructures or sugar molecules' nanoscale domains. This causes some nanoscale domains of the aqueous nanostructures or sugar molecules to obtain the original substance molecules' dipole orientations. A highly diluted HM may have no molecule of the original substance, but the aqueous nanostructures or sugar molecules may contain the original substance's dipole orientations. Therefore, HMs can precisely aim at the biological targets of the original substance molecules and electrostatically interact with them as mild stimuli.

"Imagine the Perfect Vaccine": Homeopathic Vaccine Alternatives and Vaccine Discourse in English Canada

Advocates of homeopathic vaccines, also known as nosodes, reimagined the risks and benefits of vaccination from 1999 to 2015 by comparing "risky" vaccines to "risk-free" nosodes. I argue that nosodes allowed for a complementary argument to anti-vaccine discourse, fundamentally altering what had been framed as a choice between the risks of vaccination and the risks of vaccine-preventable disease. Despite evidence of their efficacy being flawed, advocates presented nosodes as an alternative to vaccines and a middle ground between anti-vaccination and vaccination. While a campaign from 2013 to 2015 tried to expose nosodes as ineffective, I argue that the campaign was unsuccessful. Instead, the mainstream media brought more attention to nosodes. The history of nosodes further complicates the history of vaccines and alternative medicine in Canada by adding vaccine alternatives to the growing literature on vaccine hesitancy.

Exploring Possible Mechanisms of Hormesis and Homeopathy in the Light of Nanopharmacology and Ultra-High Dilutions

Serially diluted succussed solutions of a suitable drug/toxic substance can exhibit physicochemical and biological properties even far beyond Avogadro's limit defying conventional wisdom. They can show hormesis, and homeopathy uses them as medicines. Many studies confirm that they can have an impact on gene expression different than controls. Water in the exclusion zone phase can have memory but for a short period. However, the nanoparticle as the physical substrate can hold information. Nanoparticle and exclusion zone duo as nanoparticle-exclusion zone shell can provide a prolonged memory. The Nanoparticle-Exclusion Zone Shell Model may be an important step toward explaining the nature and bioactivity of serially diluted succussed solutions used as homeopathic medicines. This model may also provide insight into the workings of hormesis. Hormesis is the primary phenomenon through which homeopathic phenomenon may have evolved exhibiting the principle of similars. Hahnemann exploited it to establish homeopathy. The nanoparticle-exclusion zone shells present in the remedy, selected on the principle of similars, can be patient-specific nanoparticles in a symptom syndrome-specific manner. They can carry the drug-specific information for safer clinical applications in an amplified form for high yielding. It suggests homeopathy is a type of nanopharmacology.

Immune Organs and Immune Cells on a Chip: An Overview of Biomedical Applications

Understanding the immune system is of great importance for the development of drugs and the design of medical implants. Traditionally, two-dimensional static cultures have been used to investigate the immune system in vitro, while animal models have been used to study the immune system’s function and behavior in vivo. However, these conventional models do not fully emulate the complexity of the human immune system or the human in vivo microenvironment. Consequently, many promising preclinical findings have not been reproduced in human clinical trials. Organ-on-a-chip platforms can provide a solution to bridge this gap by offering human micro-(patho)physiological systems in which the immune system can be studied. This review provides an overview of the existing immune-organs-on-a-chip platforms, with a special emphasis on interorgan communication. In addition, future challenges to develop a comprehensive immune system-on-chip model are discussed.

[Course of neurogenic bladder dysfunction in patients with spinal cord injury under homeopathic treatment]

BACKGROUND

Nearly all patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) suffer from neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD). Untreated NLUTD is a risk factor for renal damage and can significantly affect quality of life (QoL). Patients with SCI frequently use complementary medicine to alleviate symptoms, namely for urologic problems.

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated whether homeopathic treatment influences objective urodynamic parameters.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In a retrospective study, urodynamic data of patients with NLUTD due to SCI who received constitutional homeopathic treatment by the consultants of our hospital were evaluated before initiation of homeopathic treatment and at the most recent follow-up. Modifications in urologic treatment were taken into account.

RESULTS

Urodynamic results from 35 patients who underwent homeopathic treatment (14 women, 21 men, median age 46 years, tetraplegia: n = 14; paraplegia: n = 21) were available at both time points and could therefore be evaluated. In all, 20 patients used intermittent catheterization, 6 persons had an indwelling catheter, and 9 persons emptied their bladders without a catheter. There were no significant differences in the urodynamic parameters before and during treatment. Changes in urologic therapy correlated with significant improvement in urodynamic findings.

CONCLUSIONS

As all patients were under urologic surveillance, and immediate urologic treatment was established if necessary, a retrospective study design proved not to be suitable to detect possible influences of homeopathic treatment on urodynamic parameters in patients with SCI. Thus, a prospective randomized study is essential.

Usefulness of classical homeopathy for the prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infections in individuals with chronic neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction

Context/Objective: to investigate the usefulness of classical homeopathy for the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI). Design: prospective study. Setting: rehabilitation center in Switzerland. Participants: patients with chronic SCI and ≥3 UTI/year. Interventions: Participants were treated either with a standardized prophylaxis alone or in combination with homeopathy. Outcome measures: The number of UTI, general and specific quality of life (QoL), and satisfaction with homeopathic treatment were assessed prospectively for one year. Results: Ten patients were in the control group; 25 patients received adjunctive homeopathic treatment. The median number of self-reported UTI in the homeopathy group decreased significantly, whereas it remained unchanged in the control group. The domain incontinence impact of the KHQ improved significantly (P = 0.035), whereas the general QoL did not change. The satisfaction with homeopathic care was high. Conclusions: Adjunctive homeopathic treatment lead to a significant decrease of UTI in SCI patients. Therefore, classical homeopathy could be considered in SCI patients with recurrent UTI. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov. (NCT01477502).

Toxicological assessment compilation of selected examples of raw materials for homeopathic medicinal products

The considerable number of homeopathic medicinal products (HMP) on the German market and the staggering breadth of active substances of various origin along with the specific legal requirements of adequate safety principles posed the need to compile data on toxicologically evaluated raw materials. In line with the European regulatory framework, HMP applications must consider appropriate safety standards in analogy to conventional human medicinal products. This review presents an option for a systematic and scientifically substantiated approach for regulatory use. Furthermore, this paper provides a multitude of data for selected raw materials processed in HMP with up to now rather scarce knowledge and, thus, aims at filling data gaps on acceptable amounts per day (AAD). The inclusion of raw materials into the compilation was determined considering the frequencies of their occurrence in HMP in Germany along with the availability of appropriate safety assessments. This safety evaluation compilation represents a practical, fairly comprehensive and systematic set of more than 170 raw materials. It is designed to both effectively support regulatory decision making and to be recognized and exploited by applicants, stakeholders and the scientific community.

Comparison of veterinary drugs and veterinary homeopathy: part 1

For many years after its invention around 1796, homeopathy was widely used in people and later in animals. Over the intervening period (1796-2016) pharmacology emerged as a science from Materia Medica (medicinal materials) to become the mainstay of veterinary therapeutics. There remains today a much smaller, but significant, use of homeopathy by veterinary surgeons. Homeopathic products are sometimes administered when conventional drug therapies have not succeeded, but are also used as alternatives to scientifically based therapies and licensed products. The principles underlying the veterinary use of drug-based and homeopathic products are polar opposites; this provides the basis for comparison between them. This two-part review compares and contrasts the two treatment forms in respect of history, constituents, methods of preparation, known or postulated mechanisms underlying responses, the legal basis for use and scientific credibility in the 21st century. Part 1 begins with a consideration of why therapeutic products actually work or appear to do so.

Can Homeopathic Treatment Slow Prostate Cancer Growth?

Background: Homeopathy is a complementary medicine widely used around the world. Despite extensive use of homeopathy for cancer and other serious conditions with reported success, clinical and laboratory research has been equivocal, and no rigorous research has been done on cancer. In 1999, the US National Cancer Institute evaluated the effects of homeopathic treatment of cancer from a clinic in India and has released a request for protocols to conduct further research into this treatment. Therefore, the authors conducted a series of carefully controlled laboratory studies evaluating the effects of commonly used homeopathic remedies in cell and animal models of prostate cancer. Study Design: One hundred male Copenhagen rats were randomly assigned to either treatment or control groups after inoculation with prostate tumor cells. Methods: Prostate tumor cells DU-145, LNCaP, and MAT-LyLu were exposed to 5 homeopathic remedies. Male Copenhagen rats were injected with MAT-LyLu cells and exposed to the same homeopathic remedies for 5 weeks. In vitro outcomes included tumor cell viability and apoptosis gene expression. In vivo outcomes included tumor incidence, volume, weight, total mortality, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression, apoptotic cell death (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated d-uridine triphosphate nick end labeling), and gene expression (rAPO-multiprobe). Results: There were no effects on cell viability or gene expression in 3 prostate cell lines with any remedies at any exposure time. There was a 23% reduction in tumor incidence (P < .0001), and for animals with tumors, there was a 38% reduction in tumor volume in homeopathy-treated animals versus controls (P < .02). At time of killing, experimental animals with tumors had a 13% lower average tumor weight (P < .05). Tumors in these treated animals showed a 19% increase in apoptotic cell death (P < .05) and reduced PCNA-positive cells. Conclusions: The findings indicate that selected homeopathic remedies for the present study have no direct cellular anticancer effects but appear to significantly slow the progression of cancer and reduce cancer incidence and mortality in Copenhagen rats injected with MAT-LyLu prostate cancer cells.

Survey of immuno-allergological ultra high dilution research

BACKGROUND

Experiments about basic research in Immuno-allergology reported by M. Bastide and B. Poitevin in Ultra High Dilution (1994) have been appraised from a 20 year perspective. The numerous experiments published mainly focus on immunological regulation, inflammatory process and basophil activation. They are analyzed according to one essential criterion: repeatability.

METHODS

The commentary reflects the research details made available in a recently published literature review, also published in French.

RESULTS

The regulatory effect of high dilution of bursin on immune response has been observed in multiple experiments but not reproduced by independent teams. The immunomodulating effect of Thymulin has been confirmed in mice. Rhus toxicodendron has an anti-inflammatory activity on different models, from mother tincture (TM) to very high dilutions. The homeopathic complex Canova activates macrophages in vitro and in vivo, induces lymphocyte proliferation, and reduces the size of tumors and mortality of sarcoma-bearing mice. Some homeopathic medicines used in clinical inflammation modulate in vitro the neutrophil activation, with variability in the protocols used and in the medicines tested. In allergology, high dilution histamine has an inhibitory effect on basophil activation in multicenter trials and with independent teams, either with methods implying a change in basophil staining or with flow cytometry. However, high dilution histamine had no effect in some well-conducted experiments. The inhibitory effect of Apis mellifica has not been studied with the flow cytometry method, as well as the activation of basophil by anti-IgE high dilution, published in Nature.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite considerable research activity in immuno-allergology and a great increase in the number of publications, there is still not in this domain a "gold standard" trial in basic research in homeopathy. The most studied system, the inhibitory effect of histamine high dilutions on basophil activation, requires clarifications of various factors, including individual sensitivity. For scientific and epistemological reasons, the same work should be carried out for independent reproduction of the experiments conducted with anti-IgE and Apis mel high dilution, in complement of the new axes of research in immunoallergology developed since 20 years.

Extreme sensitivity of gene expression in human SH-SY5Y neurocytes to ultra-low doses of Gelsemium sempervirens

Background

Gelsemium sempervirens L. (Gelsemium s.) is a traditional medicinal plant, employed as an anxiolytic at ultra-low doses and animal models recently confirmed this activity. However the mechanisms by which it might operate on the nervous system are largely unknown. This work investigates the gene expression of a human neurocyte cell line treated with increasing dilutions of Gelsemium s. extract.

Methods

Starting from the crude extract, six 100 × (centesimal, c) dilutions of Gelsemium s. (2c, 3c, 4c, 5c, 9c and 30c) were prepared according to the French homeopathic pharmacopoeia. Human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells were exposed for 24 h to test dilutions, and their transcriptome compared by microarray to that of cells treated with control vehicle solutions.

Results

Exposure to the Gelsemium s. 2c dilution (the highest dose employed, corresponding to a gelsemine concentration of 6.5 × 10^-9 M) significantly changed the expression of 56 genes, of which 49 were down-regulated and 7 were overexpressed. Several of the down-regulated genes belonged to G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathways, calcium homeostasis, inflammatory response and neuropeptide receptors. Fisher exact test, applied to the group of 49 genes down-regulated by Gelsemium s. 2c, showed that the direction of effects was significantly maintained across the treatment with high homeopathic dilutions, even though the size of the differences was distributed in a small range.

Conclusions

The study shows that Gelsemium s., a medicinal plant used in traditional remedies and homeopathy, modulates a series of genes involved in neuronal function. A small, but statistically significant, response was detected even to very low doses/high dilutions (up to 30c), indicating that the human neurocyte genome is extremely sensitive to this regulation.

Irritable bowel syndrome: The evolution of multi-dimensional looking and multidisciplinary treatments

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is common in the society. Among the putative pathogeneses, gut dysmotility results in pain and disturbed defecation. The latter is probably caused by the effect of abnormal gut water secretion. The interaction between abnormal gas accumulation, abdominal pain and bloating remains controversial. Visceral hypersensitivity and its modification along with the central transmission are the characteristics of IBS patients. The identification of biologic markers based on genetic polymorphisms is undetermined. Imbalanced gut microbiota may alter epithelial permeability to activate nociceptive sensory pathways which in turn lead to IBS. Certain food constituents may exacerbate bowel symptoms. The impact of adult and childhood abuses on IBS is underestimated. Using the concept of biopsychosocial dysfunction can integrate multidimensional pathogeneses. Antispasmodics plus stool consistency modifiers to treat the major symptoms and defecation are the first-line drug treatment. New drugs targeting receptors governing bowel motility, sensation and secretion can be considered, but clinicians must be aware of their potential serious side effects. Psychiatric drugs and modalities may be the final options for treating intractable subjects. Probiotics of multi-species preparations are safe and worth to be considered for the treatment. Antibiotics are promising but their long-term safety and effectiveness are unknown. Diet therapy including exclusion of certain food constituents is an economic measure. Using relatively safe complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) may be optional to those patients who failed classical treatment. In conclusion, IBS is a heterogeneous disorder with multidimensional pathogeneses. Personalized medicines with multidisciplinary approaches using different classes of drugs, psychiatric measures, probiotics and antibiotics, dietary therapy, and finally CAMs, can be considered.

Homeopathy satisfaction in Iran

BACKGROUND

Patient satisfaction is a key indicator of the quality and effectiveness of a therapeutic method. Assessing the satisfaction of patients undergoing homeopathic therapy is essential in the early steps of educating the community, if suitable outcomes are to be achieved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in 2008 on 125 patients from the city of Isfahan. Patients aged above 15 years who had referred to the homeopathic practitioners and received homeopathic drugs for at least three times were randomly selected and included in the study. Patient satisfaction was assessed in three main areas (general health, physician performance, and symptoms relief) using a valid questionnaire. The results were compared with those of a similar study conducted in 2004 on 240 patients.

RESULTS

Mean score of satisfaction with homeopathic treatment was 77.48 ± 6.36 out of 100. In 2004, it was 77.4 ± 8.13. Median age was 36.41 ± 11.25 years. Median time of therapy was 16.80 ± 17.94 months. The highest level of satisfaction was related to relief of symptoms. Satisfaction of physician performance and improvement of general health came next. The degree of satisfaction with therapy was not significant between the different groups with regard to their sex and different levels of education, but there was significant difference in the duration of treatment. The four symptoms that showed better improvement in 2008 were headache, gastrointestinal (GI) disturbances, fatigue, and insomnia.

CONCLUSIONS

After using homeopathy for several years, patients' satisfaction was found to be still high. Shifting the area of satisfaction from general health to relief of symptoms could be related to physicians' experiments for remedy selection. Scientific centers should do more surveys about the effectiveness of homeopathic treatment. Integration of homeopathy with medicine may bring in more success at less cost. It seems rational to support homeopathy as an effective practice.

Homeopathic drug discovery: theory update and methodological aspect

BACKGROUND

Homeopathy treats patient on the basis of totality of symptoms and is based on the principle of 'like cures like'. It uses ultra-low doses of highly diluted natural substances as remedies that originate from plants, minerals or animals.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this review are to discuss concepts, controversies and research related to understanding homeopathy in the light of modern science.

METHODS

Attempts have been made to focus on current views of homeopathy and to delineate its most plausible mechanism(s) of action.

RESULTS

Although some areas of concern remain, research carried out so far both in vitro and in vivo validates the effects of highly diluted homeopathic medicines in a wide variety of organisms.

CONCLUSION

The precise mechanism(s) and pathway(s) of action of highly diluted homeopathic drugs are still unknown.

Immunomodulation of Homeopathic Thymulin 5CH in a BCG-Induced Granuloma Model

The present study analyzed the immune modulation mechanisms of thymulin 5CH in a granuloma experimental model. Male adult Balb/c mice were inoculated with BCG into the footpad to induce granuloma, which was quantitatively evaluated. The phenotypic characterization of phagocyte, T- and B-lymphocyte populations in the peritoneum, and local lymph node was done by flow cytometry. During all experimental periods, thymulin 5CH and vehicle (control) were given ad libitum to mice, diluted into the drinking water (1.6 × 10⁻¹⁷ M). After 7 days from inoculation, thymulin-treated mice presented reduction in the number of epithelioid cytokeratine-positive cells (P = 0.0001) in the lesion, in relation to young phagocytes. After 21 days, the differentiation of B1 peritoneal stem cells into phagocytes reached the peak, being higher in thymulin-treated mice (P = 0.0001). Simultaneously, the score of infected phagocytes in the lesion decreased (P = 0.001), and the number of B1-derived phagocytes, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the local lymph node increased in relation to control (P = 0.0001). No difference was seen on the CD25+ Treg cells. The results show that thymulin 5CH treatment is able to improve the granuloma inflammatory process and the infection remission, by modulating local and systemic phagocyte differentiation.

Hormesis and its relationship with homeopathy

Homeopathy is an ancient and complex therapeutic method that is rediscovering its scientific foundations. Hormesis is a frequently observed phenomenon that has been rigorously reported with precise dose-response curves. The therapeutic method based on the principle of ‘like cures like’ should not be confused with hormesis, which has several different implications from those of homeopathy. Yet, because both these approaches to nature and medicine are very broad in scope, they do end up having some points of contact. Thus, the well-established and consolidated field of hormesis can help cast light, through its ideas and research methods, on the possible mechanisms of action of remedies in ultra-low doses.

The curious case of charles darwin and homeopathy

In 1849, Charles Darwin was so ill that he was unable to work one out of every 3 days, and after having various troubling symptoms for 2-12 years, he wrote to a friend that he was 'going the way of all flesh'. He sought treatment from Dr James Manby Gully, a medical doctor who used water cure and homeopathic medicines. Despite being highly skeptical of these treatments, he experienced a dramatic improvement in his health, though some of his digestive and skin symptoms returned various times in his life. He grew to appreciate water cure, but remained skeptical of homeopathy, even though his own experiments on insectivore plants using what can be described as homeopathic doses of ammonia salts surprised and shocked him with their significant biological effect. Darwin even expressed concern that he should publish these results. Two of Darwin's sons were as incredulous as he was, but their observations confirmed the results of his experiments. Darwin was also known to have read a book on evolution written by a homeopathic physician that Darwin described as similar to his own but 'goes much deeper.'

Brief homeopathic pathogenetic experimentation: a unique educational tool in Brazil

In homeopathy, many difficulties are encountered in understanding theoretical presuppositions because they represent different paradigms from those of hegemonic science. In our medical school, we developed a brief homeopathic pathogenetic experimentation course to be added as curricular content and a didactic method in homeopathic disciplines to add practical experience to the theoretical approach of homeopathic presuppositions. In accordance with the premises laid out by Hahnemann, the father of homeopathy, brief pathogenetic experimentation was offered on a voluntary basis for students who were free of chronic diseases and who had not regularly used medication in the last 3 months. The clinical test, either crossed or sequential (randomized and blind), was used as a study model. Single weekly doses of a homeopathic medicine of 30 cH or placebo were taken by participants during 4 weeks after which crossover of the experimented substances took place for another 4 weeks. Polycrest medicines were used so that symptoms developed by the participants could be compared to those described in Homeopathic Materia Medica. Thirty-three of the 50 students who studied homeopathy as an elective discipline over the last 4 years at the School of Medicine of the University of São Paulo (FMUSP) participated. Participants described symptoms according to specific methodology including many comments with peculiar characteristics and notable idiosyncrasies. All these students endorsed the course because it contributed to their understanding of how dynamized substances produced symptoms in healthy participants as well as the cure of symptoms according to the casual similitude principle. Brief homeopathic pathogenetic experimentation proved to be an effective method to observe the idiosyncratic manifestations of human individuality based on qualitative methodology, thus building a basis of understanding of homeopathy.

Evaluating complementary therapies for canine osteoarthritis--Part II: a homeopathic combination preparation (Zeel)

A homeopathic combination preparation (HCP) for canine osteoarthritic pain was evaluated in a randomized, double-controlled and double-blinded clinical trial. Forty-four dogs with osteoarthritis (OA) that were randomly allocated into one of three groups completed the study. All dogs were fed test products or placebo for 8 weeks. The dogs were evaluated at the clinic four times, with 4-week intervals. Six different variables were assessed: veterinary-assessed mobility, two force plate variables, an owner-evaluated chronic pain index and pain and locomotion visual analogue scales (VASs). Intake of extra non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs was also evaluated. A Chi-squared test and a Mann–Whitney test were used to determine significant improvement between groups. When changed into dichotomous responses of ‘improved’ or ‘not improved’ three out of the six variables showed a significant difference (P = 0.016, P = 0.008, P = 0.039) in improved dogs per group, between the HCP group and the placebo group. The odds ratios were over one for the same variables. As extent of improvement in the variables from start to end of treatment, the HCP product was significantly more improved in four (P = 0.015, P = 0.028, P = 0.049, P = 0.020) of the six variables, compared with the placebo. Our results indicated that the HCP Zeel® was beneficial in alleviating chronic orthopedic pain in dogs although it was not as effective as carprofen.

The history of the Memory of Water

'Homeopathic dilutions' and 'Memory of Water' are two expressions capable of turning a peaceful and intelligent person into a violently irrational one,' as Michel Schiff points out in the introduction of his book 'The Memory of Water'. The idea of the memory of water arose in the laboratory of Jacques Benveniste in the late 1980s and 20 years later the debate is still ongoing even though an increasing number of scientists report they have confirmed the basic results. This paper, first provides a brief historical overview of the context of the high dilution experiments then moves on to digital biology. One working hypothesis was that molecules can communicate with each other, exchanging information without being in physical contact and that at least some biological functions can be mimicked by certain energetic modes characteristics of a given molecule. These considerations informed exploratory research which led to the speculation that biological signaling might be transmissible by electromagnetic means. Around 1991, the transfer of specific molecular signals to sensitive biological systems was achieved using an amplifier and electromagnetic coils. In 1995, a more sophisticated procedure was established to record, digitize and replay these signals using a multimedia computer. From a physical and chemical perspective, these experiments pose a riddle, since it is not clear what mechanism can sustain such 'water memory' of the exposure to molecular signals. From a biological perspective, the puzzle is what nature of imprinted effect (water structure) can impact biological function. Also, the far-reaching implications of these observations require numerous and repeated experimental tests to rule out overlooked artifacts. Perhaps more important is to have the experiments repeated by other groups and with other models to explore the generality of the effect. In conclusion, we will present some of this emerging independent experimental work.

Immunology and homeopathy. 5. The rationale of the 'Simile'

The foundation of homeopathic medicine is the 'Similia Principle', also known as the 'Principle of Similarity' or also as the 'Simile', which reflects the inversion of pharmacological effects in healthy subjects as compared with sick ones. This article describes the inversion of effects, a widespread medical phenomenon, through three possible mechanisms: non-linearity of dose-response relationship, different initial pathophysiological states of the organism, and pharmacodynamics of body response to the medicine. Based on the systemic networks which play an important role in response to stress, a unitary and general model is designed: homeopathic medicines could interact with sensitive (primed) regulation systems through complex information, which simulate the disorders of natural disease. Reorganization of regulation systems, through a coherent response to the medicine, could pave the way to the healing of the cellular, tissue and neuro-immuno-endocrine homeodynamics. Preliminary evidence is suggesting that even ultra-low doses and high-dilutions of drugs may incorporate structural or frequency information and interact with chaotic dynamics and physical-electromagnetic levels of regulation. From the clinical standpoint, the 'simile' can be regarded as a heuristic principle, according to which the detailed knowledge of pathogenic effects of drugs, associated with careful analysis of signs and symptoms of the ill subject, could assist in identifying homeopathic remedies with high grade of specificity for the individual case.

Laboratory research in homeopathy: pro

Homeopathy is a holistic method of treatment that uses ultralow doses of highly diluted natural substances originating from plants, minerals, or animals and is based on the principle of "like cures like." Despite being occasionally challenged for its scientific validity and mechanism of action, homeopathy continues to enjoy the confidence of millions of patients around the world who opt for this mode of treatment. Contrary to skeptics' views, research on home-opathy using modern tools mostly tends to support its efficacy and advocates new ideas toward understanding its mechanism of action. As part of a Point-Counterpoint feature, this review and its companion piece in this issue by Moffett et al (Integr Cancer Ther. 2006;5:333-342) are composed of a thesis section, a response section in reaction to the companion thesis, and a rebuttal section to address issues raised in the companion response.

Regulatory T cells, a potent immunoregulatory target for CAM researchers: modulating tumor immunity, autoimmunity and alloreactive immunity (III)

Regulatory T (T(reg)) cells are the major arbiter of immune responses, mediating actions through the suppression of inflammatory and destructive immune reactions. Inappropriate T(reg) cell frequency or functionality potentiates the pathogenesis of myriad diseases with ranging magnitudes of severity. Lack of suppressive capability hinders restraint on immune responses involved in autoimmunity and alloreactivity, while excessive suppressive capacity effectively blocks processes necessary for tumor destruction. Although the etiology of dysfunctional T(reg) cell populations is under debate, the ramifications, and their mechanisms, are increasingly brought to light in the medical community. Methods that compensate for aberrant immune regulation may not address the underlying complications; however, they hold promise for the alleviation of debilitating immune system-related disorders. The dominant immunoregulatory nature of T(reg) cells, coupled with recent mechanistic knowledge of natural immunomodulatory compounds, highlights the importance of T(reg) cells to practitioners and researchers of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).

Immunology and homeopathy. 4. Clinical studies-part 2

The clinical studies on the effectiveness of homeopathy in respiratory allergy (18 randomized trials and 9 observational studies) are described. The literature of common immunologic disorders including also upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) and otorhinolaryngology (reported in part 1), is evaluated and discussed. Most of initial evidence-based research was addressed to the question of whether homeopathic high dilutions are placebos or possess specific effects, but this question has been often equivocal and is still a matter of debate. The evidence demonstrates that in some conditions homeopathy shows significant promise, e.g. Galphimia glauca (low dilutions/potencies) in allergic oculorhinitis, classical individualized homeopathy in otitis and possibly in asthma and allergic complaints, and a few low-potency homeopathic complexes in sinusitis and rhinoconjunctivitis. A general weakness of evidence derives from lack of independent confirmation of reported trials and from presence of conflicting results, as in case of homeopathic immunotherapy and of classical homeopathy for URTI. The suitable methods to evaluate homeopathy effectiveness, without altering the setting of cure, are also analyzed.

Immunology and homeopathy. 4. Clinical studies-part 1

The evidence-based research of the effectiveness of homeopathic medicines in common immunologic disorders is reviewed. In part 1, we introduce methodological issues of clinical research in homeopathy, and criteria utilized to evaluate the literature. Then 24 studies (12 randomized and 12 non-randomized) on common upper respiratory tract infections and otorhinolaryngologic complaints are described. In part 2, the focus will be on allergic diseases and the effectiveness of homeopathy will be globally evaluated and discussed using the criteria of evidence-based medicine.

Immunology and homeopathy. 3. Experimental studies on animal models

A search of the literature and the experiments carried out by the authors of this review show that there are a number of animal models where the effect of homeopathic dilutions or the principles of homeopathic medicine have been tested. The results relate to the immunostimulation by ultralow doses of antigens, the immunological models of the ‘simile’, the regulation of acute or chronic inflammatory processes and the use of homeopathic medicines in farming. The models utilized by different research groups are extremely etherogeneous and differ as the test medicines, the dilutions and the outcomes are concerned. Some experimental lines, particularly those utilizing mice models of immunomodulation and anti-inflammatory effects of homeopathic complex formulations, give support to a real effect of homeopathic high dilutions in animals, but often these data are of preliminary nature and have not been independently replicated. The evidence emerging from animal models is supporting the traditional ‘simile’ rule, according to which ultralow doses of compounds, that in high doses are pathogenic, may have paradoxically a protective or curative effect. Despite a few encouraging observational studies, the effectiveness of the homeopathic prevention or therapy of infections in veterinary medicine is not sufficiently supported by randomized and controlled trials.

Immunology and homeopathy. 2. Cells of the immune system and inflammation

Here we describe the results of some experimental laboratory studies aimed at verifying the efficacy of high dilutions of substances and of homeopathic medicines in models of inflammation and immunity. Studies carried out on basophils, lymphocytes, granulocytes and fibroblasts are reviewed. This approach may help to test under controlled conditions the main principles of homeopathy such as 'similarity' of drug action at the cellular level and the effects of dilution/dynamization on the drug activity. The current situation is that few and rather small groups are working on laboratory models for homeopathy. Regarding the interpretation of data in view of the simile principle, we observe that there are different levels of similarity and that the laboratory data give support to this principle, but have not yet yielded the ultimate answer to the action mechanism of homeopathy. Evidence of the biological activity in vitro of highly diluted-dynamized solutions is slowly accumulating, with some conflicting reports. It is our hope that this review of literature unknown to most people will give an original and useful insight into the 'state-of-the-art' of homeopathy, without final conclusions 'for' or 'against' this modality. This kind of uncertainty may be difficult to accept, but is conceivably the most open-minded position now.

Regulatory T cells, a potent immunoregulatory target for CAM researchers: the ultimate antagonist (I)

Over the past decade, great interest has been given to regulatory T (T(reg)) cells. A vast body of evidence has shown the existence and highlighted the importance of T(reg) cells in the active suppression of immune system responses. This form of immunoregulation is the dominant means utilized by the immune system to reach a harmony between reciprocal response processes in order to ensure adequate host defense with minimal host detriment. Therapeutically targeting T(reg) cells is a direct and powerful means to manipulate the immune system to achieve beneficial effects on various disease pathologies, including allergy, autoimmunity and cancer, as well as the facilitation of organ transplantation. This powerful target for immunoregulation is of much concern to practitioners and researchers of complementary and alternative medicine because it allows a great deal of control and certainty in dealing with the prevalence of debilitating immune system-related disorders for which there has been little remedy outside of Western Medicine.