Targeting malaria parasite invasion of red blood cells as an antimalarial strategy

Antiplasmodial and interferon-gamma-modulating activities of the aqueous extract of stone breaker (Phyllanthus niruri Linn.) in malaria infection

Plasmodium falciparum parasites are the primary cause of malaria across Africa. The problem of drug resistance to malaria is ever growing and novel therapeutic strategies need to be developed, particularly those targeting the parasite and also the host or host-pathogen interaction. Previous studies have shown that the development of cerebral malaria (CM) is related to dysregulation of the immune system in a murine malaria model of experimental cerebral malaria. It involves a complex interaction of events and interferon-gamma seems to be the unifying factor. Therefore, the antiplasmodial activity targeting the parasite and immunomodulatory strategies that reduce overall host inflammation, with IFN-γ in focus, could delay CM onset and prove beneficial in malaria infection therapy. Phyllanthus niruri is used to treat fever and other symptoms of malaria in Nigeria. Its modes of action as an anti-malarial remedy have not been exhaustively investigated. This study therefore examined the aqueous extract of P. niruri (PE) for its antiplasmodial activity in vitro using the Plasmodium falciparum HB3 strain. Furthermore, in vivo murine malaria model using the Plasmodium berghei ANKA strain was used to investigate its anti-malarial effects. We showed that PE has multiple anti-malarial effects, including anti-parasitic and host immunomodulatory activities. Co-culture of P. falciparum with PE and some of its phytoconstituents drastically reduced parasite number. PE also decreased parasitemia, and increased the survival of infected mice. We also observed that the integrity of the blood-brain barrier was maintained in the PE-treated mice. The results confirmed that PE showed moderate antiplasmodial activity. In vivo murine malaria model using P. berghei ANKA for experimental cerebral malaria revealed that PE suppressed parasite growth, and modulate the production of interferon-gamma. The findings demonstrate that PE affects malaria progression, targeting parasites and host cells.

Bottoms up! Malaria parasite invasion the right way around

A critical part of the malaria parasite's life cycle is invasion of red blood cells (RBCs) by merozoites. Inside RBCs, the parasite forms a schizont, which undergoes segmentation to produce daughter merozoites. These cells are released, establishing cycles of invasion. Traditionally, merozoites are represented as nonmotile, egg-shaped cells that invade RBCs 'narrower end' first and pack within schizonts with this narrower end facing outwards. Here, we discuss recent evidence and re-evaluate previous data which suggest that merozoites are capable of motility and have spherical or elongated-teardrop shapes. Furthermore, merozoites invade RBCs 'wider end' first and pack within schizonts with this wider end facing outwards. We encourage the field to review this revised model and consider its implications for future studies.

Nanocarrier based active targeting strategies against erythrocytic stage of malaria

The Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016-2030 aims to achieve a 90% reduction in malaria cases, and strategic planning and execution are crucial for accomplishing this target. This review aims to understand the complex interaction between erythrocytic receptors and parasites and to use this knowledge to actively target the erythrocytic stage of malaria. The review provides insight into the malaria life cycle, which involves various receptors such as glycophorin A, B, C, and D (GPA/B/C/D), complement receptor 1, basigin, semaphorin 7a, Band 3/ GPA, Kx, and heparan sulfate proteoglycan for parasite cellular binding and ingress in the erythrocytic and exo-erythrocytic stages. Synthetic peptides mimicking P. falciparum receptor binding ligands, human serum albumin, chondroitin sulfate, synthetic polymers, and lipids have been utilized as ligands and decorated onto nanocarriers for specific targeting to parasite-infected erythrocytes. The need of the hour for treatment and prophylaxis against malaria is a broadened horizon that includes multiple targeting strategies against the entry, proliferation, and transmission stages of the parasite. Platform technologies with established pre-clinical safety and efficacy should be translated into clinical evaluation and formulation scale-up. Future development should be directed towards nanovaccines as proactive tools against malaria infection.

A Pyridyl-Furan Series Developed from the Open Global Health Library Block Red Blood Cell Invasion and Protein Trafficking in Plasmodium falciparum through Potential Inhibition of the Parasite's PI4KIIIB Enzyme

With the resistance increasing to current antimalarial medicines, there is an urgent need to discover new drug targets and to develop new medicines against these targets. We therefore screened the Open Global Health Library of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany, of 250 compounds against the asexual blood stage of the deadliest malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum, from which eight inhibitors with low micromolar potency were found. Due to its combined potencies against parasite growth and inhibition of red blood cell invasion, the pyridyl-furan compound OGHL250 was prioritized for further optimization. The potency of the series lead compound (WEHI-518) was improved 250-fold to low nanomolar levels against parasite blood-stage growth. Parasites selected for resistance to a related compound, MMV396797, were also resistant to WEHI-518 as well as KDU731, an inhibitor of the phosphatidylinositol kinase PfPI4KIIIB, suggesting that this kinase is the target of the pyridyl-furan series. Inhibition of PfPI4KIIIB blocks multiple stages of the parasite's life cycle and other potent inhibitors are currently under preclinical development. MMV396797-resistant parasites possess an E1316D mutation in PfPKI4IIIB that clusters with known resistance mutations of other inhibitors of the kinase. Building upon earlier studies that showed that PfPI4KIIIB inhibitors block the development of the invasive merozoite parasite stage, we show that members of the pyridyl-furan series also block invasion and/or the conversion of merozoites into ring-stage intracellular parasites through inhibition of protein secretion and export into red blood cells.

Sulfonylpiperazine compounds prevent Plasmodium falciparum invasion of red blood cells through interference with actin-1/profilin dynamics

With emerging resistance to frontline treatments, it is vital that new antimalarial drugs are identified to target Plasmodium falciparum. We have recently described a compound, MMV020291, as a specific inhibitor of red blood cell (RBC) invasion, and have generated analogues with improved potency. Here, we generated resistance to MMV020291 and performed whole genome sequencing of 3 MMV020291-resistant populations. This revealed 3 nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms in 2 genes; 2 in profilin (N154Y, K124N) and a third one in actin-1 (M356L). Using CRISPR-Cas9, we engineered these mutations into wild-type parasites, which rendered them resistant to MMV020291. We demonstrate that MMV020291 reduces actin polymerisation that is required by the merozoite stage parasites to invade RBCs. Additionally, the series inhibits the actin-1-dependent process of apicoplast segregation, leading to a delayed death phenotype. In vitro cosedimentation experiments using recombinant P. falciparum proteins indicate that potent MMV020291 analogues disrupt the formation of filamentous actin in the presence of profilin. Altogether, this study identifies the first compound series interfering with the actin-1/profilin interaction in P. falciparum and paves the way for future antimalarial development against the highly dynamic process of actin polymerisation.

Host-directed therapies for malaria: possible applications and lessons from other indications

Host-directed therapies (HDT) are rapidly advancing as a new and clinically relevant strategy to treat infectious disease. The application of HDT can be broadly used to (i) inhibit host factors essential for pathogen development, including host protein kinases, (ii) control detrimental immune signalling, resulting from excessive release of cytokines, chemokines and extracellular vesicles and (iii) strengthen host defence mechanisms, such as tight junctions in the endothelium. For malaria and other eukaryotic parasite-causing diseases, HDTs could provide a novel avenue to combat the growing resistance seen across all antimicrobials and provide protection against the severe forms of disease through modulation of the host immune response.

Characterisation of PfCZIF1 and PfCZIF2 in Plasmodium falciparum asexual stages

Plasmodium falciparum exerts strong temporal control of gene expression across its lifecycle. Proteins expressed exclusively during late schizogony of blood stages, for example, often have a role in facilitating merozoite invasion of the host red blood cell (RBC), through merozoite development, egress, invasion or early establishment of infection in the RBC. Here, we characterise P. falciparum C3H1 zinc finger 1 (PfCZIF1, Pf3D7_1468400) and P. falciparum C3H1 zinc finger 2 (PfCZIF2, Pf3D7_0818100) which we identified as the only C3H1-type zinc finger proteins with peak expression at schizogony. Previous studies reported that antibodies against PfCZIF1 inhibit merozoite invasion, suggesting this protein may have a potential role during RBC invasion. We show using C-terminal truncations and gene knockouts of each of Pfczif1 and Pfczif2 that neither are essential for blood stage growth. However, they could not both be knocked out simultaneously, suggesting that at least one is needed for parasite growth in vitro. Immunofluorescence localisation of PfCZIF1 and PfCZIF2 indicated that both proteins occur in discrete foci on the periphery of the parasite's cytosol and biochemical assays suggest they are peripherally associated to a membrane. Transcriptomic analyses for the C-terminal truncation mutants reveal no significant expression perturbations with PfCZIF1 truncation. However, modification of PfCZIF2 appears to modify the expression for some exported proteins including PfKAHRP. This study does not support a role for PfCZIF1 or PfCZIF2 in merozoite invasion of the RBC and suggests that these proteins may help regulate the expression of proteins exported into the RBC cytosol after merozoite invasion.

PfATP4 inhibitors in the Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box and Pathogen Box block the schizont-to-ring transition by inhibiting egress rather than invasion

The cation efflux pump Plasmodium falciparum ATPase 4 (PfATP4) maintains Na⁺ homeostasis in malaria parasites and has been implicated in the mechanism of action of many structurally diverse antimalarial agents, including >7% of the antimalarial compounds in the Medicines for Malaria Venture's 'Malaria Box' and 'Pathogen Box'. Recent screens of the 'Malaria Box' and 'Pathogen Box' revealed that many PfATP4 inhibitors prevent parasites from exiting their host red blood cell (egress) or entering new host cells (invasion), suggesting that these compounds may have additional molecular targets involved in egress or invasion. Here, we demonstrate that five PfATP4 inhibitors reduce egress but not invasion. These compounds appear to inhibit egress by blocking the activation of protein kinase G, an enzyme that, once stimulated, rapidly activates parasite egress. We establish a direct link between egress and PfATP4 function by showing that the inhibition of egress is attenuated in a Na⁺-depleted environment and in parasites with a mutation in pfatp4. Finally, we show that PfATP4 inhibitors induce host cell lysis when administered prior to the completion of parasite replication. Since host cell lysis mimics egress but is not followed by invasion, this phenomenon likely explains why several PfATP4 inhibitors were previously classified as invasion inhibitors. Collectively, our results confirm that PfATP4-mediated Na⁺ efflux is critical to the regulation of parasite egress.

Red Blood Cells Oligosaccharides as Targets for Plasmodium Invasion

The key element in developing a successful malaria treatment is a good understanding of molecular mechanisms engaged in human host infection. It is assumed that oligosaccharides play a significant role in Plasmodium parasites binding to RBCs at different steps of host infection. The formation of a tight junction between EBL merozoite ligands and glycophorin receptors is the crucial interaction in ensuring merozoite entry into RBCs. It was proposed that sialic acid residues of O/N-linked glycans form clusters on a human glycophorins polypeptide chain, which facilitates the binding. Therefore, specific carbohydrate drugs have been suggested as possible malaria treatments. It was shown that the sugar moieties of N-acetylneuraminyl-N-acetate-lactosamine and 2,3-didehydro-2-deoxy-N-acetylneuraminic acid (DANA), which is its structural analog, can inhibit P. falciparum EBA-175-GPA interaction. Moreover, heparin-like molecules might be used as antimalarial drugs with some modifications to overcome their anticoagulant properties. Assuming that the principal interactions of Plasmodium merozoites and host cells are mediated by carbohydrates or glycan moieties, glycobiology-based approaches may lead to new malaria therapeutic targets.

Characterisation of the Theileria orientalis Piroplasm Proteome across Three Common Genotypes

Theileria orientalis is an emerging apicomplexan pathogen of cattle occurring in areas populated by the principal vector tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis. Unlike transforming Theileria spp. that induce cancer-like proliferation of lymphocytes via their schizont stage, T. orientalis destroys host erythrocytes during its piroplasm phase resulting in anaemia. The underlying pathogenic processes of T. orientalis infection are poorly understood; consequently, there are no vaccines for prevention of T. orientalis infection and chemotherapeutic options are limited. To identify antigens expressed during the piroplasm phase of T. orientalis, including those which may be useful targets for future therapeutic development, we examined the proteome across three common genotypes of the parasite (Ikeda, Chitose and Buffeli) using preparations of piroplasms purified from bovine blood. A combination of Triton X-114 extraction, one-dimensional electrophoresis and LC-MS/MS identified a total of 1113 proteins across all genotypes, with less than 3% of these representing host-derived proteins. Just over three quarters of T. orientalis proteins (78%) identified were from the aqueous phase of the TX-114 extraction representing cytosolic proteins, with the remaining 22% from the detergent phase, representing membrane-associated proteins. All enzymes involved in glycolysis were expressed, suggesting that this is the major metabolic pathway used during the T. orientalis piroplasm phase. Proteins involved in binding and breakdown of haemoglobin were also identified, suggesting that T. orientalis uses haemoglobin as a source of amino acids. A number of proteins involved in host cell interaction were also identified which may be suitable targets for the development of chemotherapeutics or vaccines.

Subtilisin-like Serine Protease 1 (SUB1) as an Emerging Antimalarial Drug Target: Current Achievements in Inhibitor Discovery

Widespread resistance to many antimalarial therapies currently in use stresses the need for the discovery of new classes of drugs with new modes of action. The subtilisin-like serine protease SUB1 controls egress of malaria parasites (merozoites) from the parasite-infected red blood cell. As such, SUB1 is considered a prospective target for drugs designed to interrupt the asexual blood stage life cycle of the malaria parasite. Inhibitors of SUB1 have potential as wide-spectrum antimalarial drugs, as a single orthologue of SUB1 is found in the genomes of all known Plasmodium species. This mini-perspective provides a short overview of the function and structure of SUB1 and summarizes all of the published SUB1 inhibitors. The inhibitors are classified by the methods of their discovery, including both rational design and screening.

Functional inactivation of Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase GSK3 modulates erythrocyte invasion and blocks gametocyte maturation

Malaria is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths every year. The lack of an effective vaccine and the global spread of multidrug resistant parasites hampers the fight against the disease and underlines the need for new antimalarial drugs. Central to the pathogenesis of malaria is the proliferation of Plasmodium parasites within human erythrocytes. Parasites invade erythrocytes via a coordinated sequence of receptor–ligand interactions between the parasite and the host cell. Posttranslational modifications such as protein phosphorylation are known to be key regulators in this process and are mediated by protein kinases. For several parasite kinases, including the Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase 3 (PfGSK3), inhibitors have been shown to block erythrocyte invasion. Here, we provide an assessment of PfGSK3 function by reverse genetics. Using targeted gene disruption, we show the active gene copy, PfGSK3β, is not essential for asexual blood stage proliferation, although it modulates efficient erythrocyte invasion. We found functional inactivation leads to a 69% decreased growth rate and confirmed this growth defect by rescue experiments with wildtype and catalytically inactive mutants. Functional knockout of PfGSK3β does not lead to transcriptional upregulation of the second copy of PfGSK3. We further analyze expression, localization, and function of PfGSK3β during gametocytogenesis using a parasite line allowing conditional induction of sexual commitment. We demonstrate PfGSK3β-deficient gametocytes show a strikingly malformed morphology leading to the death of parasites in later stages of gametocyte development. Taken together, these findings are important for our understanding and the development of PfGSK3 as an antimalarial target.

The Plasmodium falciparum Nuclear Protein Phosphatase NIF4 Is Required for Efficient Merozoite Invasion and Regulates Artemisinin Sensitivity

Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum has been associated with a mutation in the NLI-interacting factor-like phosphatase PfNIF4, in addition to the mutations in the Kelch13 protein as the major determinant. We found that PfNIF4 was predominantly expressed at the schizont stage and localized in the nuclei of the parasite. To elucidate the functions of PfNIF4 in P. falciparum, we performed PfNIF4 knockdown (KD) using the inducible ribozyme system. PfNIF4 KD attenuated merozoite invasion and affected gametocytogenesis. PfNIF4 KD parasites also showed significantly increased in vitro susceptibility to artemisinins. Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis revealed that PfNIF4 KD led to the downregulation of gene categories involved in invasion and artemisinin resistance (e.g., mitochondrial function, membrane, and Kelch13 interactome) at the trophozoite and/or schizont stage. Consistent with PfNIF4 being a protein phosphatase, PfNIF4 KD resulted in an overall upregulation of the phosphoproteome of infected erythrocytes. Quantitative phosphoproteomic profiling identified a set of PfNIF4-regulated phosphoproteins with functional similarity to FCP1 substrates, particularly proteins involved in chromatin organization and transcriptional regulation. Specifically, we observed increased phosphorylation of Ser2/5 of the tandem repeats in the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) upon PfNIF4 KD. Furthermore, using the TurboID-based proteomic approach, we identified that PfNIF4 interacted with the RNAPII components, AP2-domain transcription factors, and chromatin-modifiers and binders. These findings suggest that PfNIF4 may act as the RNAPII CTD phosphatase, regulating the expression of general and parasite-specific cellular pathways during the blood-stage development.

Targeting the Plasmodium falciparum proteome and organelles for potential antimalarial drug candidates

There is an unmet need to unearth alternative treatment options for malaria, wherein this quest is more pressing in recent times due to high morbidity and mortality data arising mostly from the endemic countries coupled with partial diversion of attention from the disease in view of the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic. Available therapeutic options for malaria have been severely threatened with the emergence of resistance to almost all the antimalarial drugs by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite in humans, which is a worrying situation. Artemisinin combination therapies (ACT) that have so far been the mainstay of malaria have encountered resistance by malaria parasite in South East Asia, which is regarded as a notorious ground zero for the emergence of resistance to antimalarial drugs. This review analyzes a few key druggable targets for the parasite and the potential of specific inhibitors to mitigate the emerging antimalarial drug resistance problem by providing a concise assessment of the essential proteins of the malaria parasite that could serve as targets. Moreover, this work provides a summary of the advances made in malaria parasite biology and the potential to leverage these findings for antimalarial drug production.

An update on cerebral malaria for therapeutic intervention

BACKGROUND

Cerebral malaria is often pronounced as a major life-threatening neurological complication of Plasmodium falciparum infection. The complex pathogenic landscape of the parasite and the associated neurological complications are still not elucidated properly. The growing concerns of drugresistant parasite strains along with the failure of anti-malarial drugs to subdue post-recovery neuro-cognitive dysfunctions in cerebral malaria patients have called for a demand to explore novel biomarkers and therapeutic avenues. Due course of the brain infection journey of the parasite, events such as sequestration of infected RBCs, cytoadherence, inflammation, endothelial activation, and blood-brain barrier disruption are considered critical.

METHODS

In this review, we briefly summarize the diverse pathogenesis of the brain-invading parasite associated with loss of the blood-brain barrier integrity. In addition, we also discuss proteomics, transcriptomics, and bioinformatics strategies to identify an array of new biomarkers and drug candidates.

CONCLUSION

A proper understanding of the parasite biology and mechanism of barrier disruption coupled with emerging state-of-art therapeutic approaches could be helpful to tackle cerebral malaria.

Title: A Comprehensive Review on Classifying Fast-acting and Slow-acting Antimalarial Agents Based on Time of Action and Target Organelle of Plasmodium sp

The clinical resistance towards malarial parasites has rendered many antimalarials ineffective, likely due to a lack of understanding of time of action and stage specificity of all life stages. Therefore, to tackle this problem a more incisive comprehensive analysis of the fast and slow-acting profile of antimalarial agents relating to parasite time-kill kinetics and the target organelle on the progression of blood-stage parasites was carried out. It is evident from numerous findings that drugs targeting food vacuole, nuclear components, and endoplasmic reticulum mainly exhibit a fast-killing phenotype within 24h affecting first-cycle activity. Whereas drugs targeting mitochondria, apicoplast, microtubules, parasite invasion and egress exhibit a largely slow-killing phenotype within 96-120h, affecting second-cycle activity with few exemptions as moderately fast-killing. It is essential to understand the susceptibility of drugs on rings, trophozoites, schizonts, merozoites, and the appearance of organelle at each stage of 48h intraerythrocytic parasite cycle. Therefore, these parameters may facilitate the paradigm for understanding the timing of antimalarials action in deciphering its precise mechanism linked with time. Thus, classifying drugs based on the time of killing may promote designing new combination regimens against varied strains of P. falciparum and evaluating potential clinical resistance.

Evaluation of blood cell count parameters as predictors of treatment failure of malaria in Angola: An observational study

Background

Despite the guidelines provided by the World Health Organization for the treatment of malaria, treatment failure occurs in many hospitalized patients.

Objective

Evaluate whether blood cell count parameters may serve as predictors for malaria treatment.

Methodology

A cross-sectional study with a quantitative approach.

Results

Of the 219 patients, 21.5% showed failure to antimalarial treatment, Patient with 21 and 40 years (72.6%), male (53.4%), from peri-urban area (47.5%), with high parasitemia (59.8%), treated with Arthemeter (90.9%) and the mortality were 5.9%. Significant associations were observed between occupation, level of parasitemia and outcome with resistance to antimalarial treatment (p<0.05). Patients with normal Hb [OR: 0.75 (95% CI: 0.39–1.44), p = 0.393], RBC [OR: 0.83 (95% CI: 0.40–1.72), p = 0.632], RDW [OR: 0.54 (95% CI: 0.27–1.09), p = 0.088], MCV [OR: 0.61 (95% CI: 0.28–1.31), p = 0.204] were less likely to have malaria treatment failures after artemisinin-based therapy failure. In contrast, those with normal values of segmented neutrophils [OR: 0.32 (95% CI: 0.11–0.96), p = 0.042] and lymphocyte counts [OR: 0.24 (95% CI: 0.05–1.04), p = 0.055]. We also found that patients with significant low levels of Hct [OR: 0.31 (95% CI: 0.15–0.64) p = 0.002], and high leukocytes [OR: 8.88 (95% CI: 2.02–37.2), p = 0.004] and normal platelet values [OR: 1.42 (95% CI: 0.73–2.95), p = 0.280] demonstrated high probability of treatment failure.

Conclusion

The importance of blood cell count parameters in monitoring malaria therapy necessitates the urgent need to re-evaluate Artemether-based therapy. Future studies involving more participants in different settings are needed to provide further evidence.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored micronemal antigen (GAMA) interacts with the band 3 receptor to promote erythrocyte invasion by malaria parasites

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored micronemal antigen (GAMA) is an erythrocyte binding protein known to be involved in malarial parasite invasion. Although anti-GAMA antibodies have been shown to block GAMA attachment to the erythrocyte surface and subsequently inhibit parasite invasion, little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which GAMA promotes the invasion process. In this study, LC-MS analysis was performed on the erythrocyte membrane to identify the specific receptor that interacts with GAMA. We found that ankyrin 1 and the band 3 membrane protein showed affinity for GAMA, and characterization of their binding specificity indicated that both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax GAMA bound to the same extracellular loop of band 3 (loop 5). In addition, we show the interaction between GAMA and band 3 was sensitive to chymotrypsin. Furthermore, antibodies against band 3 loop 5 were able to reduce the binding activity of GAMA to erythrocytes and inhibit the invasion of P. falciparum merozoites into human erythrocytes, whereas antibodies against P. falciparum GAMA (PfGAMA)-Tr3 only slightly reduced P. falciparum invasion. The identification and characterization of the erythrocyte GAMA receptor is a novel finding that identifies an essential mechanism of parasite invasion of host erythrocytes.

Protection and Alleviated Inflammation Induced by Virus-like Particle Vaccines Containing Plasmodium berghei MSP-8, MSP-9 and RAP1

Virus-like particles (VLP) are a highly efficient vaccine platform used to present multiple antigenic proteins. Merozoite surface protein 8 (MSP-8), 9 (MSP-9) and rhoptry-associated protein 1 (RAP1) of Plasmodium berghei are the important proteins in erythrocyte invasion and the replication of parasites. In this study, we generated three VLPs expressing MSP-8, MSP-9 or RAP1 together with influenza virus matrix protein M1 as a core protein, and the protection and alleviated inflammation induced by VLP immunization were investigated. Mice were immunized with a mixture of three VLPs, MSP-8, MSP-9 and RAP1, and challenge-infected with P. berghei. As a result, VLPs immunization elicited higher levels of P. berghei or VLPs-specific IgG antibody responses in the sera upon boost compared to that upon prime and naive. Upon challenge infection with P. berghei, higher levels of CD4+ T cell and memory B cell responses in the spleen were also found in VLPs-immunized mice compared to non-immunized control. Importantly, VLP immunization significantly alleviated inflammatory cytokine responses (TNF-α, IFN-γ) both in the sera and spleen. VLP vaccine immunization also assisted in diminishing the parasitic burden in the peripheral blood and prolonged the survival of immunized mice. These results indicated that a VLPs vaccine containing MSP-8, MSP-9 and RAP1 could be a vaccine candidate for P. berghei infection.

Synchronisation of Plasmodium falciparum and P. knowlesi In Vitro Cultures Using a Highly Specific Protein Kinase Inhibitor

Synchronisation of Plasmodium cultures is essential to investigate the complexities of time-dependent events associated with the asexual blood stage of the malaria parasite life cycle. Here we describe a procedure using ML10, a highly specific inhibitor of the parasite cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), to attain high synchronicity of Plasmodium falciparum and P. knowlesi asexual blood-stage cultures and to obtain high levels of arrested mature schizonts as well as viable released merozoites. Additionally, we describe how to use ML10 to improve the transfection efficiency of P. falciparum parasites and also how to derive the half maximal effective concentration (EC₅₀) of ML10 in other P. falciparum laboratory lines and clinical isolates.

Antiparasitic Effects of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Marine Hydrobionts

This review presents materials characterizing sulfated polysaccharides (SPS) of marine hydrobionts (algae and invertebrates) as potential means for the prevention and treatment of protozoa and helminthiasis. The authors have summarized the literature on the pathogenetic targets of protozoa on the host cells and on the antiparasitic potential of polysaccharides from red, brown and green algae as well as certain marine invertebrates. Information about the mechanisms of action of these unique compounds in diseases caused by protozoa has also been summarized. SPS is distinguished by high antiparasitic activity, good solubility and an almost complete absence of toxicity. In the long term, this allows for the consideration of these compounds as effective and attractive candidates on which to base drugs, biologically active food additives and functional food products with antiparasitic activity.

cAMP-dependent protein kinase regulates secretion of apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) in Plasmodium yoelii

Malaria remains a heavy global burden on human health, and it is important to understand the molecular and cellular biology of the parasite to find targets for drug and vaccine development. The mouse malaria model is an essential tool to characterize the function of identified molecules; however, robust technologies for targeted gene deletions are still poorly developed for the widely used rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium yoelii. To overcome this problem, we established a DiCre-loxP inducible knockout (iKO) system in P. yoelii, which showed more than 80% excision efficacy of the target locus and more than 90% reduction of locus transcripts 24 h (one cell cycle) after RAP administration. Using this developed system, cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKAc) was inducibly disrupted and the phenotypes of the resulting PKAc-iKO parasites were analyzed. We found that PKAc-iKO parasites showed severe growth and erythrocyte invasion defects. We also found that disruption of PKAc impaired the secretion of AMA1 in P. yoelii, in contrast to a report showing no role of PKAc in AMA1 secretion in P. falciparum. This discrepancy may be related to the difference in the timing of AMA1 distribution to the merozoite surface, which occurs just after egress for P. falciparum, but after several minutes for P. yoelii. Secretions of PyEBL, Py235, and RON2 were not affected by the disruption of PKAc in P. yoelii. PyRON2 was already secreted to the merozoite surface immediately after merozoite egress, which is inconsistent with the current model that RON2 is injected into the erythrocyte cytosol. Further investigations are required to understand the role of RON2 exposed on the merozoite surface.

Recent advances in targeting malaria with nanotechnology-based drug carriers

Malaria, as one of the most common human infectious diseases, remains the greatest global health concern, since approximately 3.5 billion people around the world, especially those in subtropical areas, are at the risk of being infected by malaria. Due to the emergence and spread of drug resistance to the current antimalarials, malaria-related mortality and incidence rates have recently increased. To overcome the aforementioned obstacles, nano-vehicles based on biodegradable, natural, and non-toxic polymers have been developed. Accordingly, these systems are considered as a potential drug vehicle, which due to their unique properties such as the excellent safety profile, good biocompatibility, tunable structure, diversity, and the presence of functional groups within the polymer structure, could facilitate covalent attachment of targeting moieties and antimalarials to the polymeric nano-vehicles. In this review, we highlighted some recent developments of liposomes as unique nanoscale drug delivery vehicles and several polymeric nanovehicles, including hydrogels, dendrimers, self-assembled micelles, and polymer-drug conjugates for the effective delivery of antimalarials.

Multi-omics approaches to improve malaria therapy

Malaria contributes to the most widespread infectious diseases worldwide. Even though current drugs are commercially available, the ever-increasing drug resistance problem by malaria parasites poses new challenges in malaria therapy. Hence, searching for efficient therapeutic strategies is of high priority in malaria control. In recent years, multi-omics technologies have been extensively applied to provide a more holistic view of functional principles and dynamics of biological mechanisms. We briefly review multi-omics technologies and focus on recent malaria progress conducted with the help of various omics methods. Then, we present up-to-date advances for multi-omics approaches in malaria. Next, we describe resistance phenomena to established antimalarial drugs and underlying mechanisms. Finally, we provide insight into novel multi-omics approaches, new drugs and vaccine developments and analyze current gaps in multi-omics research. Although multi-omics approaches have been successfully used in malaria studies, they are still limited. Many gaps need to be filled to bridge the gap between basic research and treatment of malaria patients. Multi-omics approaches will foster a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of Plasmodium that are essential for the development of novel drugs and vaccines to fight this disastrous disease.

Structure activity refinement of phenylsulfonyl piperazines as antimalarials that block erythrocytic invasion

The emerging resistance to combination therapies comprised of artemisinin derivatives has driven a need to identify new antimalarials with novel mechanisms of action. Central to the survival and proliferation of the malaria parasite is the invasion of red blood cells by Plasmodium merozoites, providing an attractive target for novel therapeutics. A screen of the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box employing transgenic P. falciparum parasites expressing the nanoluciferase bioluminescent reporter identified the phenylsulfonyl piperazine class as a specific inhibitor of erythrocyte invasion. Here, we describe the optimization and further characterization of the phenylsulfonyl piperazine class. During the optimization process we defined the functionality required for P. falciparum asexual stage activity and determined the alpha-carbonyl S-methyl isomer was important for antimalarial potency. The optimized compounds also possessed comparable activity against multidrug resistant strains of P. falciparum and displayed weak activity against sexual stage gametocytes. We determined that the optimized compounds blocked erythrocyte invasion consistent with the asexual activity observed and therefore the phenylsulfonyl piperazine analogues described could serve as useful tools for studying Plasmodium erythrocyte invasion.

A proteomic glimpse into the effect of antimalarial drugs on Plasmodium falciparum proteome towards highlighting possible therapeutic targets

There is no effective vaccine against malaria; therefore, chemotherapy is to date the only choice to fight against this infectious disease. However, there is growing evidences of drug-resistance mechanisms in malaria treatments. Therefore, the identification of new drug targets is an urgent need for the clinical management of the disease. Proteomic approaches offer the chance of determining the effects of antimalarial drugs on the proteome of Plasmodium parasites. Accordingly, we reviewed the effects of antimalarial drugs on the Plasmodium falciparum proteome pointing out the relevance of several proteins as possible drug targets in malaria treatment. In addition, some of the P. falciparum stage-specific altered proteins and parasite-host interactions might play important roles in pathogenicity, survival, invasion and metabolic pathways and thus serve as potential sources of drug targets. In this review, we have identified several proteins, including thioredoxin reductase, helicases, peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase, endoplasmic reticulum-resident calcium-binding protein, choline/ethanolamine phosphotransferase, purine nucleoside phosphorylase, apical membrane antigen 1, glutamate dehydrogenase, hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, heat shock protein 70x, knob-associated histidine-rich protein and erythrocyte membrane protein 1, as promising antimalarial drugs targets. Overall, proteomic approaches are able to partially facilitate finding possible drug targets. However, the integration of other 'omics' and specific pharmaceutical techniques with proteomics may increase the therapeutic properties of the critical proteins identified in the P. falciparum proteome.

Whole blood or plasma: what is the ideal matrix for pharmacokinetic-driven drug candidate selection?

In the present era of drug development, quantification of drug concentrations following pharmacokinetic studies has preferentially been performed using plasma as a matrix rather than whole blood. However, it is critical to realize the difference between measuring drug concentrations in blood versus plasma and the consequences thereof. Pharmacokinetics using plasma data may be misleading if concentrations differ between plasma and red blood cells (RBCs) because of differential binding in blood. In this review, factors modulating the partitioning of drugs into RBCs are discussed and the importance of determining RBC uptake of drugs for drug candidate selection is explored. In summary, the choice of matrix (plasma vs whole blood) is an important consideration to be factored in during drug discovery.

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii encodes a gamut of phosphodiesterases during its lytic cycle in human cells

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Toxoplasma genome harbors at least 18 phosphodiesterases encoded by distinct genes.

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Most parasite PDEs lack regulatory modules and are quite divergent from their human orthologs.

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Acutely-infectious tachyzoite stage of T. gondii expresses 11 PDEs with varied localizations.

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PDE8 and PDE9 are closely-related dual-substrate specific proteins residing in the apical pole.

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Homology modeling of PDE8 and PDE9 reveals a conserved 3D topology and substrate pocket.

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PDE9 is dispensable in tachyzoites, signifying a functional redundancy with PDE8.

Cyclic nucleotide signaling is pivotal to the asexual reproduction of Toxoplasma gondii, however little do we know about the phosphodiesterase enzymes in this widespread obligate intracellular parasite. Here, we identified 18 phosphodiesterases (TgPDE1-18) in the parasite genome, most of which form apicomplexan-specific clades and lack archetypal regulatory motifs often found in mammalian PDEs. Genomic epitope-tagging in the tachyzoite stage showed the expression of 11 phosphodiesterases with diverse subcellular distributions. Notably, TgPDE8 and TgPDE9 are located in the apical plasma membrane to regulate cAMP and cGMP signaling, as suggested by their dual-substrate catalysis and structure modeling. TgPDE9 expression can be ablated with no apparent loss of growth fitness in tachyzoites. Likewise, the redundancy in protein expression, subcellular localization and predicted substrate specificity of several other PDEs indicate significant plasticity and spatial control of cyclic nucleotide signaling during the lytic cycle. Our findings shall enable a rational dissection of signaling in tachyzoites by combinatorial mutagenesis. Moreover, the phylogenetic divergence of selected Toxoplasma PDEs from human counterparts can be exploited to develop parasite-specific inhibitors and therapeutics.

Structure of the Plasmodium falciparum PfSERA5 pseudo-zymogen

PfSERA5, a significantly abundant protein present within the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) and essential for normal growth during the blood-stage life cycle of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, displays structural similarity to many other cysteine proteases. However, PfSERA5 does not exhibit any detectable protease activity and therefore the role of the PfSERA5 papain-like domain (PfSERA5E), thought to remain bound to its cognate prodomain, remains unknown. In this study, we present a revised structure of the central PfSERA5E domain at a resolution of 1.2 Å, and the first structure of the "zymogen" of this papain-like domain including its cognate prodomain (PfSERA5PE) to 2.2 Å resolution. PfSERA5PE is somewhat structurally similar to that of other known proenzymes, retaining the conserved overall folding and orientation of the prodomain through, and occluding, the archetypal papain-like catalytic triad "active-site" cleft, in the same reverse direction as conventional prodomains. Our findings are congruent with previously identified structures of PfSERA5E and of similar "zymogens" and provide a foundation for further investigation into the function of PfSERA5.

Development and application of a high-throughput screening assay for identification of small molecule inhibitors of the P. falciparum reticulocyte binding-like homologue 5 protein

The P. falciparum parasite, responsible for the disease in humans known as malaria, must invade erythrocytes to provide an environment for self-replication and survival. For invasion to occur, the parasite must engage several ligands on the host erythrocyte surface to enable adhesion, tight junction formation and entry. Critical interactions include binding of erythrocyte binding-like ligands and reticulocyte binding-like homologues (Rhs) to the surface of the host erythrocyte. The reticulocyte binding-like homologue 5 (Rh5) is the only member of this family that is essential for invasion and it binds to the basigin host receptor. The essential nature of Rh5 makes it an important vaccine target, however to date, Rh5 has not been targeted by small molecule intervention. Here, we describe the development of a high-throughput screening assay to identify small molecules which interfere with the Rh5-basigin interaction. To validate the utility of this assay we screened a known drug library and the Medicines for Malaria Box and demonstrated the reproducibility and robustness of the assay for high-throughput screening purposes. The screen of the known drug library identified the known leukotriene antagonist, pranlukast. We used pranlukast as a model inhibitor in a post screening evaluation cascade. We procured and synthesised analogues of pranlukast to assist in the hit confirmation process and show which structural moieties of pranlukast attenuate the Rh5 – basigin interaction. Evaluation of pranlukast analogues against P. falciparum in a viability assay and a schizont rupture assay show the parasite activity was not consistent with the biochemical inhibition of Rh5, questioning the developability of pranlukast as an antimalarial. The high-throughput assay developed from this work has the capacity to screen large collections of small molecules to discover inhibitors of P. falciparum Rh5 for future development of invasion inhibitory antimalarials.

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A high-throughput screening assay was developed to identify inhibitors of Rh5.

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The assay was applied in a screen of the MMV Malaria Box and a known drug library.

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Pranlukast was identified as a hit, but could not be conclusively validated.

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Assay enables future screens of large compound libraries to discover Rh5 inhibitors.

An insight into the recent development of the clinical candidates for the treatment of malaria and their target proteins

Malaria is an endemic disease, prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions which cost half of million deaths annually. The eradication of malaria is one of the global health priority nevertheless, current therapeutic efforts seem to be insufficient due to the emergence of drug resistance towards most of the available drugs, even first-line treatment ACT, unavailability of the vaccine, and lack of drugs with a new mechanism of action. Intensification of antimalarial research in recent years has resulted into the development of single dose multistage therapeutic agents which has advantage of overcoming the antimalarial drug resistance. The present review explored the current progress in the development of new promising antimalarials against prominent target proteins that have the potential to be a clinical candidate. Here, we also reviewed different aspects of drug resistance and highlighted new drug candidates that are currently in a clinical trial or clinical development, along with a few other molecules with excellent antimalarial activity overs ACTs. The summarized scientific value of previous approaches and structural features of antimalarials related to the activity are highlighted that will be helpful for the development of next-generation antimalarials.

cAMP signalling and its role in host cell invasion by malaria parasites

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is an important signalling molecule across evolution, but until recently there was little information on its role in malaria parasites. Advances in gene editing - in particular conditional genetic approaches and mass spectrometry have paved the way for characterisation of the key components of the cAMP signalling pathway in malaria parasites. This has revealed that cAMP signalling plays a critical role in invasion of host red blood cells by Plasmodium falciparum merozoites through regulating the phosphorylation of key parasite proteins by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). These insights will help us to investigate parasite cAMP signalling as a target for novel antimalarial drugs.

Actomyosin forces and the energetics of red blood cell invasion by the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum

All symptoms of malaria disease are associated with the asexual blood stages of development, involving cycles of red blood cell (RBC) invasion and egress by the Plasmodium spp. merozoite. Merozoite invasion is rapid and is actively powered by a parasite actomyosin motor. The current accepted model for actomyosin force generation envisages arrays of parasite myosins, pushing against short actin filaments connected to the external milieu that drive the merozoite forwards into the RBC. In Plasmodium falciparum, the most virulent human malaria species, Myosin A (PfMyoA) is critical for parasite replication. However, the precise function of PfMyoA in invasion, its regulation, the role of other myosins and overall energetics of invasion remain unclear. Here, we developed a conditional mutagenesis strategy combined with live video microscopy to probe PfMyoA function and that of the auxiliary motor PfMyoB in invasion. By imaging conditional mutants with increasing defects in force production, based on disruption to a key PfMyoA phospho-regulation site, the absence of the PfMyoA essential light chain, or complete motor absence, we define three distinct stages of incomplete RBC invasion. These three defects reveal three energetic barriers to successful entry: RBC deformation (pre-entry), mid-invasion initiation, and completion of internalisation, each requiring an active parasite motor. In defining distinct energetic barriers to invasion, these data illuminate the mechanical challenges faced in this remarkable process of protozoan parasitism, highlighting distinct myosin functions and identifying potential targets for preventing malaria pathogenesis.

Retargeting azithromycin analogues to have dual-modality antimalarial activity

BACKGROUND

Resistance to front-line antimalarials (artemisinin combination therapies) is spreading, and development of new drug treatment strategies to rapidly kill Plasmodium spp. malaria parasites is urgently needed. Azithromycin is a clinically used macrolide antibiotic proposed as a partner drug for combination therapy in malaria, which has also been tested as monotherapy. However, its slow-killing 'delayed-death' activity against the parasite's apicoplast organelle and suboptimal activity as monotherapy limit its application as a potential malaria treatment. Here, we explore a panel of azithromycin analogues and demonstrate that chemical modifications can be used to greatly improve the speed and potency of antimalarial action.

RESULTS

Investigation of 84 azithromycin analogues revealed nanomolar quick-killing potency directed against the very earliest stage of parasite development within red blood cells. Indeed, the best analogue exhibited 1600-fold higher potency than azithromycin with less than 48 hrs treatment in vitro. Analogues were effective against zoonotic Plasmodium knowlesi malaria parasites and against both multi-drug and artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum lines. Metabolomic profiles of azithromycin analogue-treated parasites suggested activity in the parasite food vacuole and mitochondria were disrupted. Moreover, unlike the food vacuole-targeting drug chloroquine, azithromycin and analogues were active across blood-stage development, including merozoite invasion, suggesting that these macrolides have a multi-factorial mechanism of quick-killing activity. The positioning of functional groups added to azithromycin and its quick-killing analogues altered their activity against bacterial-like ribosomes but had minimal change on 'quick-killing' activity. Apicoplast minus parasites remained susceptible to both azithromycin and its analogues, further demonstrating that quick-killing is independent of apicoplast-targeting, delayed-death activity.

CONCLUSION

We show that azithromycin and analogues can rapidly kill malaria parasite asexual blood stages via a fast action mechanism. Development of azithromycin and analogues as antimalarials offers the possibility of targeting parasites through both a quick-killing and delayed-death mechanism of action in a single, multifactorial chemotype.

A De novo Peptide from a High Throughput Peptide Library Blocks Myosin A -MTIP Complex Formation in Plasmodium falciparum

Apicomplexan parasites, through their motor machinery, produce the required propulsive force critical for host cell-entry. The conserved components of this so-called glideosome machinery are myosin A and myosin A Tail Interacting Protein (MTIP). MTIP tethers myosin A to the inner membrane complex of the parasite through 20 amino acid-long C-terminal end of myosin A that makes direct contacts with MTIP, allowing the invasion of Plasmodium falciparum in erythrocytes. Here, we discovered through screening a peptide library, a de-novo peptide ZA1 that binds the myosin A tail domain. We demonstrated that ZA1 bound strongly to myosin A tail and was able to disrupt the native myosin A tail MTIP complex both in vitro and in vivo. We then showed that a shortened peptide derived from ZA1, named ZA1S, was able to bind myosin A and block parasite invasion. Overall, our study identified a novel anti-malarial peptide that could be used in combination with other antimalarials for blocking the invasion of Plasmodium falciparum.

Induction and Kinetics of Complement-Fixing Antibodies Against Plasmodium vivax Merozoite Surface Protein 3α and Relationship With Immunoglobulin G Subclasses and Immunoglobulin M

BACKGROUND

Complement-fixing antibodies are important mediators of protection against Plasmodium falciparum malaria. However, complement-fixing antibodies remain uncharacterized for Plasmodium vivax malaria. P. vivax merozoite surface protein 3α (PvMSP3α) is a target of acquired immunity and a potential vaccine candidate.

METHODS

Plasma from children and adults with P. vivax malaria in Sabah, Malaysia, were collected during acute infection, 7 and 28 days after drug treatment. Complement-fixing antibodies and immunoglobulin M and G (IgM and IgG), targeting 3 distinctive regions of PvMSP3α, were measured by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

The seroprevalence of complement-fixing antibodies was highest against the PvMSP3α central region (77.6%). IgG1, IgG3, and IgM were significantly correlated with C1q fixation, and both purified IgG and IgM were capable of mediating C1q fixation to PvMSP3α. Complement-fixing antibody levels were similar between age groups, but IgM was predominant in children and IgG3 more prevalent in adults. Levels of functional antibodies increased after acute infection through 7 days after treatment but rapidly waned by day 28.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates that PvMSP3α antibodies acquired during P. vivax infection can mediate complement fixation and shows the important influence of age in shaping these specific antibody responses. Further studies are warranted to understand the role of these functional antibodies in protective immunity against P. vivax malaria.

PfCERLI1 is a conserved rhoptry associated protein essential for Plasmodium falciparum merozoite invasion of erythrocytes

The disease-causing blood-stage of the Plasmodium falciparum lifecycle begins with invasion of human erythrocytes by merozoites. Many vaccine candidates with key roles in binding to the erythrocyte surface and entry are secreted from the large bulb-like rhoptry organelles at the apical tip of the merozoite. Here we identify an essential role for the conserved protein P. falciparum Cytosolically Exposed Rhoptry Leaflet Interacting protein 1 (PfCERLI1) in rhoptry function. We show that PfCERLI1 localises to the cytosolic face of the rhoptry bulb membrane and knockdown of PfCERLI1 inhibits merozoite invasion. While schizogony and merozoite organelle biogenesis appear normal, biochemical techniques and semi-quantitative super-resolution microscopy show that PfCERLI1 knockdown prevents secretion of key rhoptry antigens that coordinate merozoite invasion. PfCERLI1 is a rhoptry associated protein identified to have a direct role in function of this essential merozoite invasion organelle, which has broader implications for understanding apicomplexan invasion biology.

Rhoptries are essential organelles for invasion of erythrocytes by Plasmodium. Here, the authors characterize the rhoptry-associated protein CERLI1 using quantitative super-resolution microscopy, showing that it is important for parasite invasion and secretion of rhoptry proteins including vaccine antigens.

Screening the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box for invasion and egress inhibitors of the blood stage of Plasmodium falciparum reveals several inhibitory compounds

With emerging resistance to frontline treatments, it is vital that new drugs are identified to target Plasmodium falciparum. One of the most critical processes during parasites asexual lifecycle is the invasion and subsequent egress of red blood cells (RBCs). Many unique parasite ligands, receptors and enzymes are employed during egress and invasion that are essential for parasite proliferation and survival, therefore making these processes druggable targets. To identify potential inhibitors of egress and invasion, we screened the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box, a 400 compound library against neglected tropical diseases, including 125 with antimalarial activity. For this screen, we utilised transgenic parasites expressing a bioluminescent reporter, nanoluciferase (Nluc), to measure inhibition of parasite egress and invasion in the presence of the Pathogen Box compounds. At a concentration of 2 µM, we found 15 compounds that inhibited parasite egress by >40% and 24 invasion-specific compounds that inhibited invasion by >90%. We further characterised 11 of these inhibitors through cell-based assays and live cell microscopy, and found two compounds that inhibited merozoite maturation in schizonts, one compound that inhibited merozoite egress, one compound that directly inhibited parasite invasion and one compound that slowed down invasion and arrested ring formation. The remaining compounds were general growth inhibitors that acted during the egress and invasion phase of the cell cycle. We found the sulfonylpiperazine, MMV020291, to be the most invasion-specific inhibitor, blocking successful merozoite internalisation within human RBCs and having no substantial effect on other stages of the cell cycle. This has significant implications for the possible development of an invasion-specific inhibitor as an antimalarial in a combination based therapy, in addition to being a useful tool for studying the biology of the invading parasite.

Recent Advances in System Based Study for Anti-Malarial Drug Development Process

Background:

Presently, malaria is one of the most prevalent and deadly infectious disease across Africa, Asia, and America that has now started to spread in Europe. Despite large research being carried out in the field, still, there is a lack of efficient anti-malarial therapeutics. In this paper, we highlight the increasing efforts that are urgently needed towards the development and discovery of potential antimalarial drugs, which must be safe and affordable. The new drugs thus mentioned are also able to counter the spread of malaria parasites that have been resistant to the existing agents.

Objective:

The main objective of the review is to highlight the recent development in the use of system biologybased approaches towards the design and discovery of novel anti-malarial inhibitors.

Method:

A huge literature survey was performed to gain advance knowledge about the global persistence of malaria, its available treatment and shortcomings of the available inhibitors. Literature search and depth analysis were also done to gain insight into the use of system biology in drug discovery and how this approach could be utilized towards the development of the novel anti-malarial drug.

Results:

The system-based analysis has made easy to understand large scale sequencing data, find candidate genes expression during malaria disease progression further design of drug molecules those are complementary of the target proteins in term of shape and configuration.

Conclusion:

The review article focused on the recent computational advances in new generation sequencing, molecular modeling, and docking related to malaria disease and utilization of the modern system and network biology approach to antimalarial potential drug discovery and development.

The immunology of Plasmodium vivax malaria

Plasmodium vivax infection, the predominant cause of malaria in Asia and Latin America, affects ~14 million individuals annually, with considerable adverse effects on wellbeing and socioeconomic development. A clinical hallmark of Plasmodium infection, the paroxysm, is driven by pyrogenic cytokines produced during the immune response. Here, we review studies on the role of specific immune cell types, cognate innate immune receptors, and inflammatory cytokines on parasite control and disease symptoms. This review also summarizes studies on recurrent infections in individuals living in endemic regions as well as asymptomatic infections, a serious barrier to eliminating this disease. We propose potential mechanisms behind these repeated and subclinical infections, such as poor induction of immunological memory cells and inefficient T effector cells. We address the role of antibody-mediated resistance to P. vivax infection and discuss current progress in vaccine development. Finally, we review immunoregulatory mechanisms, such as inhibitory receptors, T regulatory cells, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, that antagonizes both innate and acquired immune responses, interfering with the development of protective immunity and parasite clearance. These studies provide new insights for the clinical management of symptomatic as well as asymptomatic individuals and the development of an efficacious vaccine for vivax malaria.