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Bokhove M, Kawamura T, Okumura H, Goto S, Kawano Y, Werner S, Jarczowski F, Klimyuk V, Saito A, Kumasaka T. The structure of the rat vitamin B 12 transporter TC and its complex with glutathionylcobalamin. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:107289. [PMID: 38636663 PMCID: PMC11107200 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin or Cbl) functions as a cofactor in two important enzymatic processes in human cells, and life is not sustainable without it. B12 is obtained from food and travels from the stomach, through the intestine, and into the bloodstream by three B12-transporting proteins: salivary haptocorrin (HC), gastric intrinsic factor, and transcobalamin (TC), which all bind B12 with high affinity and require proteolytic degradation to liberate Cbl. After intracellular delivery of dietary B12, Cbl in the aquo/hydroxocobalamin form can coordinate various nucleophiles, for example, GSH, giving rise to glutathionylcobalamin (GSCbl), a naturally occurring form of vitamin B12. Currently, there is no data showing whether GSCbl is recognized and transported in the human body. Our crystallographic data shows for the first time the complex between a vitamin B12 transporter and GSCbl, which compared to aquo/hydroxocobalamin, binds TC equally well. Furthermore, sequence analysis and structural comparisons show that TC recognizes and transports GSCbl and that the residues involved are conserved among TCs from different organisms. Interestingly, haptocorrin and intrinsic factor are not structurally tailored to bind GSCbl. This study provides new insights into the interactions between TC and Cbl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Bokhove
- Structural Biology Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute (JASRI), Sayo, Hyogo, Japan.
| | - Takashi Kawamura
- Structural Biology Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute (JASRI), Sayo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Hideo Okumura
- Structural Biology Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute (JASRI), Sayo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Sawako Goto
- Department of Applied Molecular Medicine, Kidney Research Center, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Chuo-ku, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kawano
- Advanced Photon Technology Division, RIKEN SPring-8 Center, Sayo, Hyogo, Japan
| | | | | | | | - Akihiko Saito
- Department of Applied Molecular Medicine, Kidney Research Center, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Chuo-ku, Niigata, Japan
| | - Takashi Kumasaka
- Structural Biology Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute (JASRI), Sayo, Hyogo, Japan.
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Warfel HC, Wilcoxen TE. Lack of vitamin B12 impairs innate and adaptive immunity of Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) tadpoles. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 339:878-886. [PMID: 37522473 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin B12 is a micronutrient required by a variety of organisms for healthy cellular functioning. Despite the systemic effects observed in cases of B12 deficiency, relatively little is known about how vitamin B12 affects immune health, especially in amphibians, which are declining at unprecedented rates. In this study, we tested how supplementing an algae diet with B12 affects the innate and adaptive immunity of Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) tadpoles. We found that innate immunity, as measured by a bacterial killing assay, was significantly more robust in B12-supplemented tadpoles than control tadpoles, but no significant differences were found in natural antibody production or hematocrit between groups. Adaptive immunity, as measured by Aeromonas hydrophila-specific IgY antibodies, was significantly greater in tadpoles challenged with A. hydrophila and supplemented with B12 than in control tadpoles, those only challenged with A. hydrophila, and those only given B12. Our results suggest that vitamin B12 is an important factor in maintaining a functional immune system in tadpoles, which may also be true for all vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah C Warfel
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, USA
- Department of Biology, Millikin University, Decatur, Illinois, USA
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Koslová A, Trefil P, Mucksová J, Krchlíková V, Plachý J, Krijt J, Reinišová M, Kučerová D, Geryk J, Kalina J, Šenigl F, Elleder D, Kožich V, Hejnar J. Knock-Out of Retrovirus Receptor Gene Tva in the Chicken Confers Resistance to Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroups A and K and Affects Cobalamin (Vitamin B 12)-Dependent Level of Methylmalonic Acid. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122504. [PMID: 34960774 PMCID: PMC8708277 DOI: 10.3390/v13122504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The chicken Tva cell surface protein, a member of the low-density lipoprotein receptor family, has been identified as an entry receptor for avian leukosis virus of classic subgroup A and newly emerging subgroup K. Because both viruses represent an important concern for the poultry industry, we introduced a frame-shifting deletion into the chicken tva locus with the aim of knocking-out Tva expression and creating a virus-resistant chicken line. The tva knock-out was prepared by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing in chicken primordial germ cells and orthotopic transplantation of edited cells into the testes of sterilized recipient roosters. The resulting tva −/− chickens tested fully resistant to avian leukosis virus subgroups A and K, both in in vitro and in vivo assays, in contrast to their susceptible tva +/+ and tva +/− siblings. We also found a specific disorder of the cobalamin/vitamin B12 metabolism in the tva knock-out chickens, which is in accordance with the recently recognized physiological function of Tva as a receptor for cobalamin in complex with transcobalamin transporter. Last but not least, we bring a new example of the de novo resistance created by CRISPR/Cas9 editing of pathogen dependence genes in farm animals and, furthermore, a new example of gene editing in chicken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Koslová
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Pavel Trefil
- BIOPHARM, Research Institute of Biopharmacy and Veterinary Drugs, Pohoří-Chotouň 90, 254 49 Jílové u Prahy, Czech Republic; (P.T.); (J.M.); (J.K.)
| | - Jitka Mucksová
- BIOPHARM, Research Institute of Biopharmacy and Veterinary Drugs, Pohoří-Chotouň 90, 254 49 Jílové u Prahy, Czech Republic; (P.T.); (J.M.); (J.K.)
| | - Veronika Krchlíková
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Jiří Plachý
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Jakub Krijt
- Department of Pediatrics and Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Charles University, First Faculty of Medicine and General University Hospital in Prague, 128 08 Prague, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (V.K.)
| | - Markéta Reinišová
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Dana Kučerová
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Josef Geryk
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Jiří Kalina
- BIOPHARM, Research Institute of Biopharmacy and Veterinary Drugs, Pohoří-Chotouň 90, 254 49 Jílové u Prahy, Czech Republic; (P.T.); (J.M.); (J.K.)
| | - Filip Šenigl
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Daniel Elleder
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
| | - Viktor Kožich
- Department of Pediatrics and Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Charles University, First Faculty of Medicine and General University Hospital in Prague, 128 08 Prague, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (V.K.)
| | - Jiří Hejnar
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.K.); (V.K.); (J.P.); (M.R.); (D.K.); (J.G.); (F.Š.); (D.E.)
- Correspondence:
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Benoit CR, Walsh DJ, Mekerishvili L, Houerbi N, Stanton AE, McGaughey DM, Brody LC. Loss of the Vitamin B-12 Transport Protein Tcn2 Results in Maternally Inherited Growth and Developmental Defects in Zebrafish. J Nutr 2021; 151:2522-2532. [PMID: 34132337 PMCID: PMC8417929 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In humans, vitamin B-12 (cobalamin) transport involves 3 paralogous proteins: transcobalamin, haptocorrin, and intrinsic factor. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) express 3 genes that encode proteins homologous to known B-12 carrier proteins: tcn2 (a transcobalamin ortholog) and 2 atypical β-domain-only homologs, tcnba and tcnbb. OBJECTIVES Given the orthologous relation between zebrafish Tcn2 and human transcobalamin, we hypothesized that zebrafish carrying null mutations of tcn2 would exhibit phenotypes consistent with vitamin B-12 deficiency. METHODS First-generation and second-generation tcn2-/- zebrafish were characterized using phenotypic assessments, metabolic analyses, viability studies, and transcriptomics. RESULTS Homozygous tcn2-/- fish produced from a heterozygous cross are viable and fertile but exhibit reduced growth, which persists into adulthood. When first-generation female tcn2-/- fish are bred, their offspring exhibit gross developmental and metabolic defects. These phenotypes are observed in all offspring from a tcn2-/- female regardless of the genotype of the male mating partner, suggesting a maternal effect, and can be rescued with vitamin B-12 supplementation. Transcriptome analyses indicate that offspring from a tcn2-/- female exhibit expression profiles distinct from those of offspring from a tcn2+/+ female, which demonstrate dysregulation of visual perception, fatty acid metabolism, and neurotransmitter signaling pathways. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that the deposition of vitamin B-12 in the yolk by tcn2-/- females may be insufficient to support the early development of their offspring. These data present a compelling model to study the effects of vitamin B-12 deficiency on early development, with a particular emphasis on transgenerational effects and gene-environment interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney R Benoit
- Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Darren J Walsh
- Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA,School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Levan Mekerishvili
- Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nadia Houerbi
- Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Abigail E Stanton
- Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - David M McGaughey
- Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Ansaloni F, Gerdol M, Torboli V, Fornaini NR, Greco S, Giulianini PG, Coscia MR, Miccoli A, Santovito G, Buonocore F, Scapigliati G, Pallavicini A. Cold Adaptation in Antarctic Notothenioids: Comparative Transcriptomics Reveals Novel Insights in the Peculiar Role of Gills and Highlights Signatures of Cobalamin Deficiency. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041812. [PMID: 33670421 PMCID: PMC7918649 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Far from being devoid of life, Antarctic waters are home to Cryonotothenioidea, which represent one of the fascinating cases of evolutionary adaptation to extreme environmental conditions in vertebrates. Thanks to a series of unique morphological and physiological peculiarities, which include the paradigmatic case of loss of hemoglobin in the family Channichthyidae, these fish survive and thrive at sub-zero temperatures. While some of the distinctive features of such adaptations have been known for decades, our knowledge of their genetic and molecular bases is still limited. We generated a reference de novo assembly of the icefish Chionodraco hamatus transcriptome and used this resource for a large-scale comparative analysis among five red-blooded Cryonotothenioidea, the sub-Antarctic notothenioid Eleginops maclovinus and seven temperate teleost species. Our investigation targeted the gills, a tissue of primary importance for gaseous exchange, osmoregulation, ammonia excretion, and its role in fish immunity. One hundred and twenty genes were identified as significantly up-regulated in Antarctic species and surprisingly shared by red- and white-blooded notothenioids, unveiling several previously unreported molecular players that might have contributed to the evolutionary success of Cryonotothenioidea in Antarctica. In particular, we detected cobalamin deficiency signatures and discussed the possible biological implications of this condition concerning hematological alterations and the heavy parasitic loads typically observed in all Cryonotothenioidea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Ansaloni
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
- International School for Advanced Studies, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Marco Gerdol
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Valentina Torboli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Nicola Reinaldo Fornaini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
- Department of Cell Biology, Charles University, 12800 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Samuele Greco
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Piero Giulio Giulianini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Maria Rosaria Coscia
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Research Council of Italy, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Andrea Miccoli
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (A.M.); (F.B.); (G.S.)
| | | | - Francesco Buonocore
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (A.M.); (F.B.); (G.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Scapigliati
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (A.M.); (F.B.); (G.S.)
| | - Alberto Pallavicini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (F.A.); (V.T.); (N.R.F.); (S.G.); (P.G.G.); (A.P.)
- Anton Dohrn Zoological Station, 80122 Naples, Italy
- National Institute of Oceanography and Experimental Geophysics, 34010 Trieste, Italy
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Benoit CR, Stanton AE, Tartanian AC, Motzer AR, McGaughey DM, Bond SR, Brody LC. Functional and phylogenetic characterization of noncanonical vitamin B 12-binding proteins in zebrafish suggests involvement in cobalamin transport. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:17606-17621. [PMID: 30237171 PMCID: PMC6231144 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.005323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, transport of food-derived cobalamin (vitamin B12) from the digestive system into the bloodstream involves three paralogous proteins: transcobalamin (TC), haptocorrin (HC), and intrinsic factor (IF). Each of these proteins contains two domains, an α-domain and a β-domain, which together form a cleft in which cobalamin binds. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are thought to possess only a single cobalamin transport protein, referred to as Tcn2, which is a transcobalamin homolog. Here, we used CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis to create null alleles of tcn2 in zebrafish. Fish homozygous for tcn2-null alleles were viable and exhibited no obvious developmentally or behaviorally abnormal phenotypes. For this reason, we hypothesized that previously unidentified cobalamin-carrier proteins encoded in the zebrafish genome may provide an additional pathway for cobalamin transport. We identified genes predicted to code for two such proteins, Tcn-beta-a (Tcnba) and Tcn-beta-b (Tcnbb), which differ from all previously characterized cobalamin transport proteins as they lack the α-domain. These β-domain-only proteins are representative of an undescribed class of cobalamin-carrier proteins that are highly conserved throughout the ray-finned fishes. We observed that the genes encoding the three cobalamin transport homologs, tcn2, tcnba, and tcnbb, are expressed in unique spatial and temporal patterns in the developing zebrafish. Moreover, exogenously expressed recombinant Tcnba and Tcnbb bound cobalamin with high affinity, comparable with binding by full-length Tcn2. Taken together, our results suggest that this noncanonical protein structure has evolved to fully function as a cobalamin-carrier protein, thereby allowing for a compensatory cobalamin transport mechanism in the tcn2-/- zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney R Benoit
- From the Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 and
| | - Abigail E Stanton
- From the Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 and
| | - Aileen C Tartanian
- From the Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 and
| | - Andrew R Motzer
- From the Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 and
| | - David M McGaughey
- From the Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 and
| | - Stephen R Bond
- Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Lawrence C Brody
- From the Gene and Environment Interaction Section, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 and
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Lie KK, Tørresen OK, Solbakken MH, Rønnestad I, Tooming-Klunderud A, Nederbragt AJ, Jentoft S, Sæle Ø. Loss of stomach, loss of appetite? Sequencing of the ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta) genome and intestinal transcriptomic profiling illuminate the evolution of loss of stomach function in fish. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:186. [PMID: 29510660 PMCID: PMC5840709 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-4570-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta) belongs to a large teleost family containing more than 600 species showing several unique evolutionary traits such as lack of stomach and hermaphroditism. Agastric fish are found throughout the teleost phylogeny, in quite diverse and unrelated lineages, indicating stomach loss has occurred independently multiple times in the course of evolution. By assembling the ballan wrasse genome and transcriptome we aimed to determine the genetic basis for its digestive system function and appetite regulation. Among other, this knowledge will aid the formulation of aquaculture diets that meet the nutritional needs of agastric species. RESULTS Long and short read sequencing technologies were combined to generate a ballan wrasse genome of 805 Mbp. Analysis of the genome and transcriptome assemblies confirmed the absence of genes that code for proteins involved in gastric function. The gene coding for the appetite stimulating protein ghrelin was also absent in wrasse. Gene synteny mapping identified several appetite-controlling genes and their paralogs previously undescribed in fish. Transcriptome profiling along the length of the intestine found a declining expression gradient from the anterior to the posterior, and a distinct expression profile in the hind gut. CONCLUSIONS We showed gene loss has occurred for all known genes related to stomach function in the ballan wrasse, while the remaining functions of the digestive tract appear intact. The results also show appetite control in ballan wrasse has undergone substantial changes. The loss of ghrelin suggests that other genes, such as motilin, may play a ghrelin like role. The wrasse genome offers novel insight in to the evolutionary traits of this large family. As the stomach plays a major role in protein digestion, the lack of genes related to stomach digestion in wrasse suggests it requires formulated diets with higher levels of readily digestible protein than those for gastric species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai K. Lie
- Institute of Marine Research, P.O. Box. 1870, Nordnes, 5817 Bergen, NO Norway
| | - Ole K. Tørresen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, NO Norway
| | - Monica Hongrø Solbakken
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, NO Norway
| | - Ivar Rønnestad
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, P.O. Box 7803, 5020 Bergen, NO Norway
| | - Ave Tooming-Klunderud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, NO Norway
| | - Alexander J. Nederbragt
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, NO Norway
- Biomedical Informatics Research Group, Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sissel Jentoft
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, NO Norway
| | - Øystein Sæle
- Institute of Marine Research, P.O. Box. 1870, Nordnes, 5817 Bergen, NO Norway
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