Glycoconjugate structures of parasitic protozoa

The α-Galactosyl Carbohydrate Epitope in Pathogenic Protozoa

The α-gal epitope, which refers to the carbohydrate α-d-Galp-(1 → 3)-β-d-Galp-(1 → 4)-d-GlcNAc-R, was first described in the glycoconjugates of mammals other than humans. Evolution caused a mutation that resulted in the inactivation of the α-1,3-galactosyltransferase gene. For that reason, humans produce antibodies against α-d-Galp containing glycoproteins and glycolipids of other species. We summarize here the glycoconjugates with α-d-Galp structures in Trypanosoma, Leishmania, and Plasmodium pathogenic protozoa. These were identified in infective stages of Trypanosoma cruzi and in Plasmodium sporozoites. In Leishmania, α-d-Galp is linked differently in the glycans of glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPLs). Chemically synthesized neoglycoconjugates have been proposed as diagnostic tools and as antigens for vaccines. Several syntheses reported for the α-gal trisaccharide, also called the Galili epitope, and the glycans of GIPLs found in Leishmania, the preparation of neoglycoconjugates, and the studies in which they were involved are also included in this Review.

Intra-Specific Diversity of Leishmania major Isolates: A Key Determinant of Tunisian Zoonotic Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Clinical Polymorphism

The clinical expression of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) caused by Leishmania (L.) major parasites has a broad spectrum ranging from asymptomatic infection to self-limited cutaneous sores or severe disease. In concert with the host immune responses, the vector variability and the number of bites, genetic variation between L. major isolates might impact on the clinical output of the disease. We investigated herein the intra-specific variability of L. major field isolates independently of host or vector factors and then tried to correlate parasite variability to ZCL severity in corresponding patients. Several assays were applied, i.e., in vivo pathogenicity of promastigotes in a BALB/c mice model, resistance/sensibility to complement lysis, in vitro growth kinetics, and expression of different lectins on the promastigote surface. Combining all these parameters allowed us to conclude that the resistance to complement lysis and PNA/Jacalin lectins binding to parasite surfaces are important markers of parasite virulence. These factors correlate significantly with clinic polymorphism of ZCL and modestly with genetic micro-heterogeneity, a characteristic we previously revealed with a MLMT profile.

Reversed Immunoglycomics Identifies α-Galactosyl-Bearing Glycotopes Specific for Leishmania major Infection

All healthy humans have high levels of natural anti-α-galactosyl (α-Gal) antibodies (elicited by yet uncharacterized glycotopes), which may play important roles in immunoglycomics: (a) potential protection against certain parasitic and viral zoonotic infections; (b) targeting of α-Gal-engineered cancer cells; (c) aiding in tissue repair; and (d) serving as adjuvants in α-Gal-based vaccines. Patients with certain protozoan infections have specific anti-α-Gal antibodies, elicited against parasite-derived α-Gal-bearing glycotopes. These glycotopes, however, remain elusive except for the well-characterized glycotope Galα1,3Galβ1,4GlcNAcα, expressed by Trypanosoma cruzi. The discovery of new parasitic glycotopes is greatly hindered by the enormous structural diversity of cell-surface glycans and the technical challenges of classical immunoglycomics, a top-down approach from cultivated parasites to isolated glycans. Here, we demonstrate that reversed immunoglycomics, a bottom-up approach, can identify parasite species-specific α-Gal-bearing glycotopes by probing synthetic oligosaccharides on neoglycoproteins. This method was tested here seeking to identify as-yet unknown glycotopes specific for Leishmania major, the causative agent of Old-World cutaneous leishmaniasis (OWCL). Neoglycoproteins decorated with synthetic α-Gal-containing oligosaccharides derived from L. major glycoinositolphospholipids served as antigens in a chemiluminescent enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using sera from OWCL patients and noninfected individuals. Receiver-operating characteristic analysis identified Galpα1,3Galfβ and Galpα1,3Galfβ1,3Manpα glycotopes as diagnostic biomarkers for L. major-caused OWCL, which can distinguish with 100% specificity from heterologous diseases and L. tropica-caused OWCL. These glycotopes could prove useful in the development of rapid α-Gal-based diagnostics and vaccines for OWCL. Furthermore, this method could help unravel cryptic α-Gal-glycotopes of other protozoan parasites and enterobacteria that elicit the natural human anti-α-Gal antibodies.

Transport and Retention of Free-Living Amoeba Spores in Porous Media: Effects of Operational Parameters and Extracellular Polymeric Substances

Amoebas are protists that are widespread in water and soil environments. Some species are pathogenic, inducing potentially lethal effects on humans, making them a major threat to public health. Nonpathogenic amoebas are also of concern because they have the potential to carry a mini-microbiome of bacteria, either transiently or via more long-term stable transport. Due to their resistance to disinfection processes, the physical removal of amoeba by filtration is necessary to prevent their propagation throughout drinking water distribution networks and occurrence in tap water. In this study, a model amoeba species Dictyostelium discoideum was used to study the transport and retention behavior of amoeba spores in porous media. The key factors affecting the transport behavior of amoeba spores in fully saturated media were comprehensively evaluated, with experiments performed using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and parallel plate chamber system. The effects of ionic strength (IS) on the deposition of spores were found to be in contrast to the predicted Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory that more deposition is observed under lower-IS conditions. The presence of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) was found to be the main contributor to deposition behavior. Overall, these results provide plausible evidence for the presence of amoeba in tap water. Furthermore, this is one of the first studies to examine the mechanisms affecting the fate of amoeba spores in porous media, providing a significant baseline for future research to minimize the safety risk presented by amoeba in drinking water systems.

Immune Response to the Enteric Parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite responsible for amoebiasis, a disease with a high prevalence in developing countries. Establishing an amoebic infection involves interplay between pathogenic factors for invasion and tissue damage, and immune responses for protecting the host. Here, we review the pathogenicity of E. histolytica and summarize the latest knowledge on immune response and immune evasion mechanisms during amoebiasis.

Neutrophils vs. amoebas: Immunity against the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite with high prevalence in developing countries, and causes amoebiasis. This disease affects the intestine and the liver, and is the third leading cause of human deaths among parasite infections. E. histolytica infection of the intestine or liver is associated with a strong inflammation characterized by a large number of infiltrating neutrophils. Consequently, several reports suggest that neutrophils play a protective role in amoebiasis. However, other reports indicate that amoebas making direct contact with neutrophils provoke lysis of these leukocytes, resulting in the release of their lytic enzymes, which in turn provoke tissue damage. Therefore, the role of neutrophils in this parasitic infection remains controversial. Neutrophils migrate from the circulation to sites of infection, where they display several antimicrobial functions, including phagocytosis, degranulation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NET). Recently, it was found that E. histolytica trophozoites are capable of inducing NET formation. Neutrophils in touch with amoebas launched NET in an explosive manner around the amoebas and completely covered them in nebulous DNA and cell aggregates where parasites got immobilized and killed. In addition, the phenotype of neutrophils can be modified by the microbiome resulting in protection against amoebas. This review describes the mechanisms of E. histolytica infection and discusses the novel view of how neutrophils are involved in innate immunity defense against amoebiasis. Also, the mechanisms on how the microbiome modulates neutrophil function are described.

The Role of Sialic Acids in the Establishment of Infections by Pathogens, With Special Focus on Leishmania

Carbohydrates or glycans are ubiquitous components of the cell surface which play crucial biological and structural roles. Sialic acids (Sias) are nine-carbon atoms sugars usually present as terminal residues of glycoproteins and glycolipids on the cell surface or secreted. They have important roles in cellular communication and also in infection and survival of pathogens. More than 20 pathogens can synthesize or capture Sias from their hosts and incorporate them into their own glycoconjugates and derivatives. Sialylation of pathogens’ glycoconjugates may be crucial for survival inside the host for numerous reasons. The role of Sias in protozoa such as Trypanosoma and Leishmania was demonstrated in previous studies. This review highlights the importance of Sias in several pathogenic infections, focusing on Leishmania. We describe in detail the contributions of Sias, Siglecs (sialic acid binding Ig-like lectins) and Neuraminidase 1 (NEU 1) in the course of Leishmania infection. A detailed view on the structural and functional diversity of Leishmania-related Sias and host-cell receptors will be provided, as well as the results of functional studies performed with different Leishmania species.

N-Glycosylation in Piroplasmids: Diversity within Simplicity

N-glycosylation has remained mostly unexplored in Piroplasmida, an order of tick-transmitted pathogens of veterinary and medical relevance. Analysis of 11 piroplasmid genomes revealed three distinct scenarios regarding N-glycosylation: Babesia sensu stricto (s.s.) species add one or two N-acetylglucosamine (NAcGlc) molecules to proteins; Theileria equi and Cytauxzoon felis add (NAcGlc)2-mannose, while B. microti and Theileria s.s. synthesize dolichol-P-P-NAcGlc and dolichol-P-P-(NAcGlc)2 without subsequent transfer to proteins. All piroplasmids possess the gene complement needed for the synthesis of the N-glycosylation substrates, dolichol-P and sugar nucleotides. The oligosaccharyl transferase of Babesia species, T. equi and C. felis, is predicted to be composed of only two subunits, STT3 and Ost1. Occurrence of short N-glycans in B. bovis merozoites was experimentally demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy using a NAcGlc-specific lectin. In vitro growth of B. bovis was significantly impaired by tunicamycin, an inhibitor of N-glycosylation, indicating a relevant role for N-glycosylation in this pathogen. Finally, genes coding for N-glycosylation enzymes and substrate biosynthesis are transcribed in B. bovis blood and tick stages, suggesting that this pathway is biologically relevant throughout the parasite life cycle. Elucidation of the role/s exerted by N-glycans will increase our understanding of these successful parasites, for which improved control measures are needed.

Glycan moieties in Entamoeba histolytica ubiquitin are immunodominant

The ubiquitin-proteasome system plays a central role performing several functions to maintain parasite homeostasis. We have reported the partial characterization of N-linked glycosylation profile in E. histolytica ubiquitin (EhUb). Here we examined the immunogenicity and antigenicity of carbohydrates in EhUbiquitin. Rabbits were immunized with purified EhUbiquitin or purified recombinant rUb expressed by E. coli. Using Western Blot, we explored the immunogenicity and antigenicity of protein portion and carbohydrates moiety. Interestingly, immunized rabbits produced antibodies to both Ub glycoprotein and rUb; but antibodies against carbohydrates were immunodominant, rather than antibodies to the protein moiety of EhUbiquitin. In addition, we observed that antibodies to protein moiety are not conserved in serum unless antigen is continually administrated. Conversely, anti-Ub glycoprotein antibodies are well maintained in circulation. In humans, infection with Entamoeba histolytica induces strong IgG anti-Ub response. The human antibodies recognize both, the protein moieties and the glycosylated structure. Entamoeba histolytica ubiquitin is immunogenic and antigenic. The glycan moieties are immunodominant and induces IgG. These data open the door to use carbohydrates as potential targets for diagnose tests, drugs and vaccine to prevent this parasitic disease.

LPG2 Gene Duplication in Leishmania infantum: A Case for CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing

On the surface of the Leishmania promastigote, phosphoglycans (PG) such as lipophosphoglycan (LPG), proteophosphoglycan (PPG), free phosphoglycan polymers (PGs), and acid phosphatases (sAP), are dominant and contribute to the invasion and survival of Leishmania within the host cell by modulating macrophage signaling and intracellular trafficking. Phosphoglycan synthesis depends on the Golgi GDP-mannose transporter encoded by the LPG2 gene. Aiming to investigate the role of PG-containing molecules in Leishmania infantum infection process, herein we describe the generation and characterization of L. infantum LPG2-deficient parasites. This gene was unexpectedly identified as duplicated in the L. infantum genome, which impaired gene targeting using the conventional homologous recombination approach. This limitation was circumvented by the use of CRISPR/Cas9 technology. Knockout parasites were selected by agglutination assays using CA7AE antibodies followed by a lectin (RCA 120). Five clones were isolated and molecularly characterized, all revealing the expected edited genome, as well as the complete absence of LPG and PG-containing molecule expression. Finally, the deletion of LPG2 was found to impair the outcome of infection in human neutrophils, as demonstrated by a pronounced reduction (~83%) in intracellular load compared to wild-type parasite infection. The results obtained herein reinforce the importance of LPG and other PGs as virulence factors in host-parasite interactions.

Semisynthesis of Functional Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-Anchored Proteins

Glypiation is a common posttranslational modification of eukaryotic proteins involving the attachment of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) glycolipid. GPIs contain a conserved phosphoglycan that is modified in a cell‐ and tissue‐specific manner. GPI complexity suggests roles in biological processes and effects on the attached protein, but the difficulties to get homogeneous material have hindered studies. We disclose a one‐pot intein‐mediated ligation (OPL) to obtain GPI‐anchored proteins. The strategy enables the glypiation of folded and denatured proteins with a natural linkage to the glycolipid. Using the strategy, glypiated eGFP, Thy1, and the Plasmodium berghei protein MSP1₁₉ were prepared. Glypiation did not alter the structure of eGFP and MSP1₁₉ proteins in solution, but it induced a strong pro‐inflammatory response in vitro. The strategy provides access to glypiated proteins to elucidate the activity of this modification and for use as vaccine candidates against parasitic infections.

Proteins involved in the biosynthesis of lipophosphoglycan in Leishmania: a comparative genomic and evolutionary analysis

BACKGROUND

Leishmania spp. are digenetic parasites capable of infecting humans and causing a range of diseases collectively known as leishmaniasis. The main mechanisms involved in the development and permanence of this pathology are linked to evasion of the immune response. Crosstalk between the immune system and particularities of each pathogenic species is associated with diverse disease manifestations. Lipophosphoglycan (LPG), one of the most important molecules present on the surface of Leishmania parasites, is divided into four regions with high molecular variability. Although LPG plays an important role in host-pathogen and vector-parasite interactions, the distribution and phylogenetic relatedness of the genes responsible for its synthesis remain poorly explored. The recent availability of full genomes and transcriptomes of Leishmania parasites offers an opportunity to leverage insight on how LPG-related genes are distributed and expressed by these pathogens.

RESULTS

Using a phylogenomics-based framework, we identified a catalog of genes involved in LPG biosynthesis across 22 species of Leishmania from the subgenera Viannia and Leishmania, as well as 5 non-Leishmania trypanosomatids. The evolutionary relationships of these genes across species were also evaluated. Nine genes related to the production of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor were highly conserved among compared species, whereas 22 genes related to the synthesis of the repeat unit presented variable conservation. Extensive gain/loss events were verified, particularly in genes SCG1-4 and SCA1-2. These genes act, respectively, on the synthesis of the side chain attached to phosphoglycans and in the transfer of arabinose residues. Phylogenetic analyses disclosed evolutionary patterns reflective of differences in host specialization, geographic origin and disease manifestation.

CONCLUSIONS

The multiple gene gain/loss events identified by genomic data mining help to explain some of the observed intra- and interspecies variation in LPG structure. Collectively, our results provide a comprehensive catalog that details how LPG-related genes evolved in the Leishmania parasite specialization process.

Protein glycosylation inLeishmaniaspp

Protein glycosylation is a co- and post-translational modification that, inLeishmaniaparasites, plays key roles in vector–parasite–vertebrate host interaction.

Glycans in the roles of parasitological diagnosis and host-parasite interplay

The investigation of the glycan repertoire of several organisms has revealed a wide variation in terms of structures and abundance of glycan moieties. Among the parasites, it is possible to observe different sets of glycoconjugates across taxa and developmental stages within a species. The presence of distinct glycoconjugates throughout the life cycle of a parasite could relate to the ability of that organism to adapt and survive in different hosts and environments. Carbohydrates on the surface, and in excretory-secretory products of parasites, play essential roles in host-parasite interactions. Carbohydrate portions of complex molecules of parasites stimulate and modulate host immune responses, mainly through interactions with specific receptors on the surface of dendritic cells, leading to the generation of a pattern of response that may benefit parasite survival. Available data reviewed here also show the frequent aspect of parasite immunomodulation of mammalian responses through specific glycan interactions, which ultimately makes these molecules promising in the fields of diagnostics and vaccinology.

Protein O- and C-Glycosylation pathways in Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium falciparum

Apicomplexan parasites are amongst the most prevalent and morbidity-causing pathogens worldwide. They are responsible for severe diseases in humans and livestock and are thus of great public health and economic importance. Until the sequencing of apicomplexan genomes at the beginning of this century, the occurrence of N- and O-glycoproteins in these parasites was much debated. The synthesis of rudimentary and divergent N-glycans due to lineage-specific gene loss is now well established and has been recently reviewed. Here, we will focus on recent studies that clarified classical O-glycosylation pathways and described new nucleocytosolic glycosylations in Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agents of toxoplasmosis. We will also review the glycosylation of proteins containing thrombospondin type 1 repeats by O-fucosylation and C-mannosylation, newly discovered in Toxoplasma and the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The functional significance of these post-translational modifications has only started to emerge, but the evidence points towards roles for these protein glycosylation pathways in tissue cyst wall rigidity and persistence in the host, oxygen sensing, and stability of proteins involved in host invasion.

Glycoconjugates of Gram-negative bacteria and parasitic protozoa - are they similar in orchestrating the innate immune response?

Innate immunity is an evolutionarily ancient form of host defense that serves to limit infection. The invading microorganisms are detected by the innate immune system through germline-encoded PRRs. Different classes of PRRs, including TLRs and cytoplasmic receptors, recognize distinct microbial components known collectively as PAMPs. Ligation of PAMPs with receptors triggers intracellular signaling cascades, activating defense mechanisms. Despite the fact that Gram-negative bacteria and parasitic protozoa are phylogenetically distant organisms, they express glycoconjugates, namely bacterial LPS and protozoan GPI-anchored glycolipids, which share many structural and functional similarities. By activating/deactivating MAPK signaling and NF-κB, these ligands trigger general pro-/anti-inflammatory responses depending on the related patterns. They also use conservative strategies to subvert cell-autonomous defense systems of specialized immune cells. Signals triggered by Gram-negative bacteria and parasitic protozoa can interfere with host homeostasis and, depending on the type of microorganism, lead to hypersensitivity or silencing of the immune response. Activation of professional immune cells, through a ligand which triggers the opposite effect (antagonist versus agonist) appears to be a promising solution to restoring the immune balance.

Membrane Surface Features of Blastocystis Subtypes

Blastocystis is a common intestinal protistan parasite with global distribution. Blastocystis is a species complex composed of several isolates with biological and morphological differences. The surface coats of Blastocystis from three different isolates representing three subtypes were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy. This structure contains carbohydrate components that are also present in surface glycoconjugates in other parasitic protozoa. Electron micrographs show variations in the surface coats from the three Blastocystis isolates. These differences could be associated with the differences in the pathogenic potential of Blastocystis subtypes. Apart from the surface coat, a plasma membrane-associated surface antigen has been described for Blastocystis ST7 and is associated with programmed cell death features of the parasite.

Solid-Phase Synthesis of Fluorinated Analogues of Glycosyl 1-Phosphate Repeating Structures from Leishmania using the Phosphoramidite Method

Bacterial and protozoan sugar chains contain glycosyl 1-phosphate repeating structures; these repeating structures have been studied for vaccine development. The fluorinated analogues of [β-Gal-(1→4)-α-Man-(1→6)-P-] n , which are glycosyl 1-phosphate repeating structures found in Leishmania, were synthesised using the solid-phase phosphoramidite method. This method has been less extensively studied for the synthesis of glycosyl 1-phosphate units than H-phosphonate chemistry. A stepwise synthesis of a compound containing five such repeating units has been conducted using the phosphoramidite method herein, which is the longest glycosyl 1-phosphate structures to be chemically constructed in a stepwise manner.

Leishmania infantum lipophosphoglycan induced-Prostaglandin E2 production in association with PPAR-γ expression via activation of Toll like receptors-1 and 2

Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) is a key virulence factor expressed on the surfaces of Leishmania promastigotes. Although LPG is known to activate macrophages, the underlying mechanisms resulting in the production of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) via signaling pathways remain unknown. Here, the inflammatory response arising from stimulation by Leishmania infantum LPG and/or its lipid and glycan motifs was evaluated with regard to PGE₂ induction. Intact LPG, but not its glycan and lipid moieties, induced a range of proinflammatory responses, including PGE₂ and nitric oxide (NO) release, increased lipid droplet formation, and iNOS and COX2 expression. LPG also induced ERK-1/2 and JNK phosphorylation in macrophages, in addition to the release of PGE₂, MCP-1, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-12p70, but not IL-10. Pharmacological inhibition of ERK1/2 and PKC affected PGE₂ and cytokine production. Moreover, treatment with rosiglitazone, an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), also modulated the release of PGE₂ and other proinflammatory mediators. Finally, we determined that LPG-induced PPAR-γ signaling occurred via TLR1/2. Taken together, these results reinforce the role played by L. infantum-derived LPG in the proinflammatory response seen in Leishmania infection.

An α-Gal-containing neoglycoprotein-based vaccine partially protects against murine cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major

Background

Protozoan parasites from the genus Leishmania cause broad clinical manifestations known as leishmaniases, which affect millions of people worldwide. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), caused by L. major, is one the most common forms of the disease in the Old World. There is no preventive or therapeutic human vaccine available for L. major CL, and existing drug treatments are expensive, have toxic side effects, and resistant parasite strains have been reported. Hence, further therapeutic interventions against the disease are necessary. Terminal, non-reducing, and linear α-galactopyranosyl (α-Gal) epitopes are abundantly found on the plasma membrane glycolipids of L. major known as glycoinositolphospholipids. The absence of these α-Gal epitopes in human cells makes these glycans highly immunogenic and thus potential targets for vaccine development against CL.

Methodology/Principal findings

Here, we evaluated three neoglycoproteins (NGPs), containing synthetic α-Gal epitopes covalently attached to bovine serum albumin (BSA), as vaccine candidates against L. major, using α1,3-galactosyltransferase-knockout (α1,3GalT-KO) mice. These transgenic mice, similarly to humans, do not express nonreducing, linear α-Gal epitopes in their cells and are, therefore, capable of producing high levels of anti-α-Gal antibodies. We observed that Galα(1,6)Galβ-BSA (NGP5B), but not Galα(1,4)Galβ-BSA (NGP12B) or Galα(1,3)Galα-BSA (NGP17B), was able to significantly reduce the size of footpad lesions by 96% in comparison to control groups. Furthermore, we observed a robust humoral and cellular immune response with production of high levels of protective lytic anti-α-Gal antibodies and induction of Th1 cytokines.

Conclusions/Significance

We propose that NGP5B is an attractive candidate for the study of potential synthetic α-Gal-neoglycoprotein-based vaccines against L. major infection.

Despite a worldwide prevalence, cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) remains largely neglected, with no prophylactic or therapeutic vaccine available. In the Old World, CL is mainly caused by either Leishmania major or L. tropica parasites, which produce localized cutaneous ulcers, often leading to scarring and social stigma. Currently, the disease has reached hyperendemicity levels in the Middle East due to conflict and human displacement. Furthermore, the first choice of treatment in that region continues to be pentavalent antimonials, which are costly and highly toxic, and current vector control measures alone are not sufficient to stop disease transmission. Hence, a vaccine against CL would be very beneficial. Previous studies have demonstrated that sugars are promising vaccine candidates against leishmaniasis, since most parasite species have a cell surface coat composed of immunogenic sugars, including linear α-galactopyranosyl (α-Gal) epitopes, which are absent in humans. Here, we have developed an α-Gal-based vaccine candidate, named NGP5B. When tested in transgenic mice which like humans lack α-Gal epitopes in their cells, NGP5B was able to induce a significant partial protection against L. major infection, by significantly reducing mouse footpad lesions and parasite burden. Altogether, we propose NGP5B as a promising preventive vaccine for CL caused by L. major.

Azido Pentoses: A New Tool To Efficiently Label Mycobacterium tuberculosis Clinical Isolates

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the main causative agent of tuberculosis (Tb), has a complex cell envelope which forms an efficient barrier to antibiotics, thus contributing to the challenges of anti-tuberculosis therapy. However, the unique Mtb cell wall can be considered an advantage and be utilized to selectively label Mtb bacteria. Here we introduce three azido pentoses as new compounds for metabolic labeling of Mtb: 3-azido arabinose (3AraAz), 3-azido ribose (3RiboAz), and 5-azido arabinofuranose (5AraAz). 5AraAz demonstrated the highest level of Mtb labeling and was efficiently incorporated into the Mtb cell wall. All three azido pentoses can be easily used to label a variety of Mtb clinical isolates without influencing Mtb-dependent phagosomal maturation arrest in infection studies with human macrophages. Thus, this metabolic labeling method offers the opportunity to attach desired molecules to the surface of Mtb bacteria in order to facilitate investigation of the varying virulence characteristics of different Mtb clinical isolates, which influence the outcome of a Tb infection.

Motility in blastogregarines (Apicomplexa): Native and drug-induced organisation of Siedleckia nematoides cytoskeletal elements

Recent studies on motility of Apicomplexa concur with the so-called glideosome concept applied for apicomplexan zoites, describing a unique mechanism of substrate-dependent gliding motility facilitated by a conserved form of actomyosin motor and subpellicular microtubules. In contrast, the gregarines and blastogregarines exhibit different modes and mechanisms of motility, correlating with diverse modifications of their cortex. This study focuses on the motility and cytoskeleton of the blastogregarine Siedleckia nematoides Caullery et Mesnil, 1898 parasitising the polychaete Scoloplos cf. armiger (Müller, 1776). The blastogregarine moves independently on a solid substrate without any signs of gliding motility; the motility in a liquid environment (in both the attached and detached forms) rather resembles a sequence of pendular, twisting, undulation, and sometimes spasmodic movements. Despite the presence of key glideosome components such as pellicle consisting of the plasma membrane and the inner membrane complex, actin, myosin, subpellicular microtubules, micronemes and glycocalyx layer, the motility mechanism of S. nematoides differs from the glideosome machinery. Nevertheless, experimental assays using cytoskeletal probes proved that the polymerised forms of actin and tubulin play an essential role in the S. nematoides movement. Similar to Selenidium archigregarines, the subpellicular microtubules organised in several layers seem to be the leading motor structures in blastogregarine motility. The majority of the detected actin was stabilised in a polymerised form and appeared to be located beneath the inner membrane complex. The experimental data suggest the subpellicular microtubules to be associated with filamentous structures (= cross-linking protein complexes), presumably of actin nature.

Structures related to attachment and motility in the marine eugregarine Cephaloidophora cf. communis (Apicomplexa)

Gregarines represent a highly diversified group of ancestral apicomplexans, with various modes of locomotion and host-parasite interactions. The eugregarine parasite of the barnacle Balanus balanus, Cephaloidophora cf. communis, exhibits interesting organisation of its attachment apparatus along with unique motility modes. The pellicle covered gregarine is arranged into longitudinal epicytic folds. The epimerite is separated from the protomerite by a septum consisting of tubulin-rich filamentous structures and both are packed with microneme-like structures suggestive of their function in the production of adhesives important for attachment and secreted through the abundant epimerite pores. Detached trophozoites and gamonts are capable of gliding motility, enriched by jumping and rotational movements with rapid changes in gliding direction and cell flexions. Actin in its polymerised form (F-actin) is distributed throughout the entire gregarine, while myosin, detected in the cortical region of the cell, follows the pattern of the epicytic folds. Various motility modes exhibited by individuals of C. cf. communis, together with significant changes in their cell shape during locomotion, are not concordant with the gliding mechanisms generally described in apicomplexan zoites and indicate that additional structures must be involved (e.g. two 12-nm filaments; the specific dentate appearance of internal lamina inside the epicytic folds).

Biological roles of glycans

Simple and complex carbohydrates (glycans) have long been known to play major metabolic, structural and physical roles in biological systems. Targeted microbial binding to host glycans has also been studied for decades. But such biological roles can only explain some of the remarkable complexity and organismal diversity of glycans in nature. Reviewing the subject about two decades ago, one could find very few clear-cut instances of glycan-recognition-specific biological roles of glycans that were of intrinsic value to the organism expressing them. In striking contrast there is now a profusion of examples, such that this updated review cannot be comprehensive. Instead, a historical overview is presented, broad principles outlined and a few examples cited, representing diverse types of roles, mediated by various glycan classes, in different evolutionary lineages. What remains unchanged is the fact that while all theories regarding biological roles of glycans are supported by compelling evidence, exceptions to each can be found. In retrospect, this is not surprising. Complex and diverse glycans appear to be ubiquitous to all cells in nature, and essential to all life forms. Thus, >3 billion years of evolution consistently generated organisms that use these molecules for many key biological roles, even while sometimes coopting them for minor functions. In this respect, glycans are no different from other major macromolecular building blocks of life (nucleic acids, proteins and lipids), simply more rapidly evolving and complex. It is time for the diverse functional roles of glycans to be fully incorporated into the mainstream of biological sciences.

Immune Response of Amebiasis and Immune Evasion by Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite and the causative agent of amebiasis. It is estimated approximately 1% of humans are infected with E. histolytica, resulting in an estimate of 100,000 deaths annually. Clinical manifestations of amebic infection range widely from asymptomatic to severe symptoms, including dysentery and extra-intestinal abscesses. Like other infectious diseases, it is assumed that only ~20% of infected individuals develop symptoms, and genetic factors of both the parasite and humans as well as the environmental factors, e.g., microbiota, determine outcome of infection. There are multiple essential steps in amebic infection: degradation of and invasion into the mucosal layer, adherence to the intestinal epithelium, invasion into the tissues, and dissemination to other organs. While the mechanisms of invasion and destruction of the host tissues by the amebae during infection have been elucidated at the molecular levels, it remains largely uncharacterized how the parasite survive in the host by evading and attacking host immune system. Recently, the strategies for immune evasion by the parasite have been unraveled, including immunomodulation to suppress IFN-γ production, elimination of immune cells and soluble immune mediators, and metabolic alterations against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species to fend off the attack from immune system. In this review, we summarized the latest knowledge on immune reaction and immune evasion during amebiasis.

Trichomonas vaginalis Lipophosphoglycan Exploits Binding to Galectin-1 and -3 to Modulate Epithelial Immunity

Trichomoniasis is the most common non-viral sexually transmitted infection caused by the vaginotropic extracellular protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. The infection is recurrent, with no lasting immunity, often asymptomatic, and linked to pregnancy complications and risk of viral infection. The molecular mechanisms of immune evasion by the parasite are poorly understood. We demonstrate that galectin-1 and -3 are expressed by the human cervical and vaginal epithelial cells and act as pathogen-recognition receptors for the ceramide phosphoinositol glycan core (CPI-GC) of the dominant surface protozoan lipophosphoglycan (LPG). We used an in vitro model with siRNA galectin knockdown epithelial clones, recombinant galectins, clinical Trichomonas isolates, and mutant protozoan derivatives to dissect the function of galectin-1 and -3 in the context of Trichomonas infection. Galectin-1 suppressed chemokines that facilitate recruitment of phagocytes, which can eliminate extracellular protozoa (IL-8) or bridge innate to adaptive immunity (MIP-3α and RANTES (regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted)). Silencing galectin-1 increased and adding exogenous galectin-1 suppressed chemokine responses to Trichomonas or CPI-GC/LPG. In contrast, silencing galectin-3 reduced IL-8 response to LPG. Live Trichomonas depleted the extracellular levels of galectin-3. Clinical isolates and mutant Trichomonas CPI-GC that had reduced affinity to galectin-3 but maintained affinity to galectin-1 suppressed chemokine expression. Thus via CPI-GC binding, Trichomonas is capable of regulating galectin bioavailability and function to the benefit of its parasitic survival. These findings suggest novel approaches to control trichomoniasis and warrant further studies of galectin-binding diversity among clinical isolates as a possible source for symptom disparity in parasitic infections.

Novel structural features of the immunocompetent ceramide phospho-inositol glycan core from Trichomonas vaginalis

The ceramide phosphoinositol glycan core (CPI-GC) of the lipophosphoglycan of Trichomonas vaginalis is a major virulent factor of this common genitourinary parasite. While its carbohydrate composition has been reported before, its structure has remained largely unknown. We isolated the glycan portions of CPI-GC by nitrous acid deamination and hydrofluoric acid treatment and investigated their structures by methylation analysis and 1- and 2-D NMR. We found that the α-anomer of galactose is a major constituent of CPI-GC. The β-anomer was found exclusively at the non-reducing end of CPI-GC side chains. Furthermore the data showed that the rhamnan backbone is more complex than previously thought and that the inositol residue at the reducing end is linked to a 4-linked α-glucuronic acid (GlcA) residue. This appears to be the most striking and novel feature of this GPI-anchor type molecule.

Sugar activation and glycosylation in Plasmodium

Glycoconjugates are important mediators of host-pathogen interactions and are usually very abundant in the surface of many protozoan parasites. However, in the particular case of Plasmodium species, previous works show that glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor modifications, and to an unknown extent, a severely truncated N-glycosylation are the only glycosylation processes taking place in the parasite. Nevertheless, a detailed analysis of the parasite genome and the recent identification of the sugar nucleotide precursors biosynthesized by Plasmodium falciparum support a picture in which several overlooked, albeit not very prominent glycosylations may be occurring during the parasite life cycle. In this work, the authors review recent developments in the characterization of the biosynthesis of glycosylation precursors in the parasite, focusing on the outline of the possible fates of these precursors.

Characterisation of the secretome of the clam parasite, QPX

Secreted and cell surface-associated molecules play a major role in disease development processes and host-pathogen interactions, and usually determine the virulence of invading organisms. In this study, we investigated proteins secreted by quahog parasite unknown, a thraustochytrid protist that infects the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria. In silico analysis of quahog parasite unknown transcripts predicted over 1200 proteins to possess an amino-terminal signal peptide which directs proteins into the classical eukaryotic secretory pathway. Proteomic analysis using LC/MS technology identified 56 proteins present in the extracellular secretion of quahog parasite unknown cells grown in vitro, including six mucin-like molecules, four glycosyl hydrolases and eight peptidases. Transcription levels of 19 quahog parasite unknown extracellular proteins were investigated in clam tissue lesions (in vivo) using quantitative PCR. The overexpression of six of these extracellular proteins in clam tissues compared with in vitro cultures suggests that they are involved in interaction with the clam host.

Ether-type moieties in the lipid part of glycoinositolphospholipids of Acanthamoeba rhysodes

Ether lipids were identified among components liberated with HF and nitrous acid deamination from Acanthamoeba rhysodes whole cells and its membrane glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPL). Liberated ether glycerols were converted to various derivatives that served characterization thereof. These included TMS and isopropylidene derivatives, oxidation with sodium periodate to aldehyde followed by reduction with NaBH4 to alcohol, and reaction of the alcohol with acetic anhydrite to form acetate derivatives. Periodate sensitivity demonstrated that the alkyl side chains were linked to the sn-1 position of glycerol. Combined information from TLC, GC-MS analysis, MALDI-TOF spectrometry, and chemical degradation experiments indicated the presence of ether-linked saturated normal and branched hydrocarbons with a length of C20-23 in the phospholipid fraction, C20-24 in free GPI, and C21-23 in the LPG polymer. The distribution of particular classes of alkylglycerols was similar for phospholipid and GPI fractions, and amounted to 2.62% (±0.04-0.28) 1-O-eicosanyl-sn-glycerol, 16.66% (±0.32-1.1) 1-O-uncosanyl-sn-glycerol, 9.18% (±0.33-1.37) anteiso-1-O-docosanyl-sn-glycerol, 47.56% (±0.32-2.14) 1-O-docosanyl-sn-glycerol, 20.56% (±0.58-1.67) anteiso-1-O-tricosanyl-sn-glycerol, and 2.34% (±0.12-0.63) 1-O-tricosanyl-sn-glycerol. For LPG preparation, the most abundant were anteiso-1-O-tricosanyl-sn-glycerol (57.26%) and 1-O-docosanyl-sn-glycerol (30.12%). The data from TLC and GC-MS analysis showed that ether lipids from phospholipids probably represent the lyso-alkylglycerol type, while those derived from GIPL are alkylacylglycerol moieties.

New long chain bases in lipophosphonoglycan of Acanthamoeba castellanii

The polymer called lipophosphonoglycan (LPG) was isolated from Acanthamoeba castellanii membranes after exhaustive delipidation and butanol extraction. A novel extremely long phytosphingosine was revealed in glycoinositolphosphosphingolipid (GIPSL). All data obtained by gas-liquid chromatography coupled with MS analyses of products liberated during acid methanolysis and products of sodium metaperiodate and permanganate-periodate oxidations showed an unusual pattern of long chain bases (LCB) with branched bases (anteiso-C₂₄, anteiso-C₂₅, anteiso-C₂₆, iso-C₂₆, anteiso-C₂₇, and anteiso-C28) and normal ones (C₂₄, C₂₅, C₂₆, C₂₇). The phytosphingosines with hexa-, hepta-, and octacosanoic chains have not been detected in Acanthamoeba cells up to now. Also, the isomer configuration of long chain bases in LPG of A. castellanii was not defined in earlier reports. In the GC-MS chromatograms, the component forming a peak corresponding to anteiso-C₂₅ phytosphingosine was the most abundant and constituted more than 50 % of all LCB.

Vesicles as carriers of virulence factors in parasitic protozoan diseases

Different types of shed vesicles as, for example, exosomes, plasma-membrane-derived vesicles or microparticles, are the focus of intense research in view of their potential role in cell-cell communication and under the perspective that they might be good tools for immunotherapy, vaccination or diagnostic purposes. This review discusses ways employed by pathogenic trypanosomatids to interact with the host by shedding vesicles that contain molecules important for the establishment of infection, as opposed to previous beliefs considering them as a waste of cellular metabolism. Trypanosomatids are compared with Apicomplexa, which circulate parasite antigens bound to vesicles shed by host cells. The knowledge of the origin and chemical composition of these different vesicles might lead to the understanding of the mechanisms that determine their biological function.

Rare and unusual glycosylation of peptides and proteins

Glycosylation represents the most complex co- and post-translational modification of proteins. In addition to N- and O-glycans, almost all combinations, including the nature of the carbohydrate moiety and the amino-acid involved, but also the type of the chemical linkage, can be isolated from natural glycoconjugates. This diversity correlates with the importance and the variety of the biological processes (and consequently the diseases) glycosides are involved in. This review focuses on rare and unusual glycosylation of peptides and proteins.

The role of the NTPDase enzyme family in parasites: what do we know, and where to from here?

Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases (NTPDases, GDA1_CD39 protein superfamily) play a diverse range of roles in a number of eukaryotic organisms. In humans NTPDases function in regulating the inflammatory and immune responses, control of vascular haemostasis and purine salvage. In yeast NTPDases are thought to function primarily in the Golgi, crucially involved in nucleotide sugar transport into the Golgi apparatus and subsequent protein glycosylation. Although rare in bacteria, in Legionella pneumophila secreted NTPDases function as virulence factors. In the last 2 decades it has become clear that a large number of parasites encode putative NTPDases, and the functions of a number of these have been investigated. In this review, the available evidence for NTPDases in parasites and the role of these NTPDases is summarized and discussed. Furthermore, the processes by which NTPDases could function in pathogenesis, purine salvage, thromboregulation, inflammation and glycoconjugate formation are considered, and the data supporting such putative roles reviewed. Potential future research directions to further clarify the role and importance of NTPDases in parasites are proposed. An attempt is also made to clarify the nomenclature used in the parasite field for the GDA1_CD39 protein superfamily, and a uniform system suggested.

Paromomycin affects translation and vesicle-mediated trafficking as revealed by proteomics of paromomycin -susceptible -resistant Leishmania donovani

Leishmania donovani is a protozoan parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and is responsible for significant mortality and morbidity. Increasing resistance towards antimonial drugs poses a great challenge in chemotherapy of VL. Paromomycin is an aminoglycosidic antibiotic and is one of the drugs currently being used in the chemotherapy of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis. To understand the mode of action of this antibiotic at the molecular level, we have investigated the global proteome differences between the wild type AG83 strain and a paromomycin resistant (PRr) strain of L. donovani. Stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) followed by quantitative mass spectrometry of the wild type AG83 strain and the paromomycin resistant (PRr) strain identified a total of 226 proteins at ≥95% confidence. Data analysis revealed upregulation of 29 proteins and down-regulation of 21 proteins in the PRr strain. Comparative proteomic analysis of the wild type and the paromomycin resistant strains showed upregulation of the ribosomal proteins in the resistant strain indicating role in translation. Elevated levels of glycolytic enzymes and stress proteins were also observed in the PRr strain. Most importantly, we observed upregulation of proteins that may have a role in intracellular survival and vesicular trafficking in the PRr strain. Furthermore, ultra-structural analysis by electron microscopy demonstrated increased number of vesicular vacuoles in PRr strain when compared to the wild-type strain. Drug affinity pull-down assay followed by mass spectrometery identified proteins in L. donovani wild type strain that were specifically and covalently bound to paromomycin. These results provide the first comprehensive insight into the mode of action and underlying mechanism of resistance to paromomycin in Leishmania donovani.

The N-glycans of Trichomonas vaginalis contain variable core and antennal modifications

Trichomonad species are widespread unicellular flagellated parasites of vertebrates which interact with their hosts through carbohydrate-lectin interactions. In the past, some data have been accumulated regarding their lipo(phospho)glycans, a major glycoconjugate on their cell surfaces; on the other hand, other than biosynthetic aspects, few details about their N-linked oligosaccharides are known. In this study, we present both mass spectrometric and high-performance liquid chromatography data about the N-glycans of different strains of Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasite of the human reproductive tract. The major structure in all strains examined is a truncated oligomannose form (Man(5)GlcNAc(2)) with α1,2-mannose residues, compatible with a previous bioinformatic examination of the glycogenomic potential of T. vaginalis. In addition, dependent on the strain, N-glycans modified by pentose residues, phosphate or phosphoethanolamine and terminal N-acetyllactosamine (Galβ1,4GlcNAc) units were found. The modification of N-glycans by N-acetyllactosamine in at least some strains is shared with the lipo(phospho)glycan and may represent a further interaction partner for host galectins, thereby playing a role in binding of the parasite to host epithelia. On the other hand, the variation in glycosylation between strains may be the result of genetic diversity within this species.

Synthetic neoglycoconjugates of cell-surface phosphoglycans of Leishmania as potential anti-parasite carbohydrate vaccines

Leishmania are a genus of sandfly-transmitted protozoan parasites that cause a spectrum of debilitating and often fatal diseases in humans throughout the tropics and subtropics. During the parasite life cycle, Leishmania survive and proliferate in highly hostile environments. Their survival strategies involve the formation of an elaborate and dense cell-surface glycocalyx composed of diverse stage-specific glycoconjugates that form a protective barrier. Phosphoglycans constitute the variable structural and functional domain of major cell-surface lipophosphoglycan and secreted proteophosphoglycans. In this paper, we discuss structural aspects of various phosphoglycans from Leishmania with the major emphasis on the chemical preparation of neoglycoconjugates (neoglycoproteins and neoglycolipids) based on Leishmania lipophosphoglycan structures as well as the immunological evaluation for some of them as potential anti-leishmaniasis vaccines.

Probing elongating and branching β-D-galactosyltransferase activities in Leishmania parasites by making use of synthetic phosphoglycans

Protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania synthesize lipophosphoglycans (LPGs), phosphoglycans and proteophosphoglycans that contain phosphosaccharide repeat units of [-6)Gal(β1-4)Man(α1-OPO(3)H-]. The repeat structures are assembled by sequential addition of Manα1-OPO(3)H and β-Gal. In this study, an UDP-Gal-dependent activity was detected in L. donovani and L. major membranes using synthetic phospho-oligosaccharide fragments of lipophosphoglycan as acceptor substrates. Incubation of a microsomal preparation from L. donovani or L. major parasites with synthetic substrates and UDP-[6-(3)H]Gal resulted in incorporation of radiolabel into these exogenous acceptors. The [(3)H]galactose-labeled products were characterized by degradation into radioactive, low molecular mass fragments upon hydrolysis with mild acid and treatment with β-galactosidases. We showed that the activity detected with L. donovani membranes is the elongating β-d-galactosyltransferase associated with LPG phosphosaccharide backbone biosynthesis (eGalT). The eGalT activity showed a requirement for the presence of at least one phosphodiester group in the substrate and it was enhanced dramatically when two or three phosphodiester groups were present. Using the same substrates we detected two types of galactosyltransferase activity in L. major membranes: the elongating β-d-galactosyltransferase and a branching β-d-galactosyltransferase (bGalT). Both L. major enzymes required a minimum of one phosphodiester group present in the substrate, but acceptors with two or three phosphodiester groups were found to be superior.

The expanding horizons of asparagine-linked glycosylation

Asparagine-linked glycosylation involves the sequential assembly of an oligosaccharide onto a polyisoprenyl donor, followed by the en bloc transfer of the glycan to particular asparagine residues within acceptor proteins. These N-linked glycans play a critical role in a wide variety of biological processes, such as protein folding, cellular targeting and motility, and the immune response. In the past decade, research in the field of N-linked glycosylation has achieved major advances, including the discovery of new carbohydrate modifications, the biochemical characterization of the enzymes involved in glycan assembly, and the determination of the biological impact of these glycans on target proteins. It is now firmly established that this enzyme-catalyzed modification occurs in all three domains of life. However, despite similarities in the overall logic of N-linked glycoprotein biosynthesis among the three kingdoms, the structures of the appended glycans are markedly different and thus influence the functions of elaborated proteins in various ways. Though nearly all eukaryotes produce the same nascent tetradecasaccharide (Glc(3)Man(9)GlcNAc(2)), heterogeneity is introduced into this glycan structure after it is transferred to the protein through a complex series of glycosyl trimming and addition steps. In contrast, bacteria and archaea display diversity within their N-linked glycan structures through the use of unique monosaccharide building blocks during the assembly process. In this review, recent progress toward gaining a deeper biochemical understanding of this modification across all three kingdoms will be summarized. In addition, a brief overview of the role of N-linked glycosylation in viruses will also be presented.

Glycomarkers in parasitic infections and allergy

Both helminth infections and contact with allergens result in development of a Th2 type of immune response in the affected individual. In this context, the hygiene hypothesis suggests that reduced prevalence of parasitic infections and successful vaccination strategies are causative for an increase of allergies in industrialized countries. It is therefore of interest to study glycans and their role as immunogenic structures in both parasitic infections and allergies. In the present paper we review information on the different types of glycan structure present in proteins from plant and animal food, insect venom and helminth parasites, and their role as diagnostic markers. In addition, the application of these glycan structures as immunomodulators in novel immunotherapeutic strategies is discussed.