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Therapeutic role of nitric oxide as emerging molecule. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 85:182-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.11.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
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Potential immune mechanisms associated with anemia in Plasmodium vivax malaria: a puzzling question. Infect Immun 2014; 82:3990-4000. [PMID: 25092911 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01972-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of malaria is complex, generating a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations. One of the major complications and concerns in malaria is anemia, which is responsible for considerable morbidity in the developing world, especially in children and pregnant women. Despite its enormous health importance, the immunological mechanisms involved in malaria-induced anemia remain incompletely understood. Plasmodium vivax, one of the causative agents of human malaria, is known to induce a strong inflammatory response with a robust production of immune effectors, including cytokines and antibodies. Therefore, it is possible that the extent of the immune response not only may facilitate the parasite killing but also may provoke severe illness, including anemia. In this review, we consider potential immune effectors and their possible involvement in generating this clinical outcome during P. vivax infections.
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Cysteine residues of proteins participate in the catalysis of biochemical reactions, are crucial for redox reactions, and influence protein structure by the formation of disulfide bonds. Covalent posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of cysteine residues are important mediators of redox regulation and signaling by coupling protein activity to the cellular redox state, and moreover influence stability, function, and localization of proteins. A diverse group of protozoan and metazoan parasites are a major cause of diseases in humans, such as malaria, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, and schistosomiasis. RECENT ADVANCES Human parasites undergo dramatic morphological and metabolic changes while they pass complex life cycles and adapt to changing environments in host and vector. These processes are in part regulated by PTMs of parasitic proteins. In human parasites, posttranslational cysteine modifications are involved in crucial cellular events such as signal transduction (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), redox regulation of proteins (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), protein trafficking and subcellular localization (palmitoylation and prenylation), as well as invasion into and egress from host cells (palmitoylation). This review focuses on the occurrence and mechanisms of these cysteine modifications in parasites. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies on cysteine modifications in human parasites are so far largely based on in vitro experiments. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The in vivo regulation of cysteine modifications and their role in parasite development will be of great interest in order to understand redox signaling in parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Jortzik
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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Vijayan A, Gómez CE, Espinosa DA, Goodman AG, Sanchez-Sampedro L, Sorzano COS, Zavala F, Esteban M. Adjuvant-like effect of vaccinia virus 14K protein: a case study with malaria vaccine based on the circumsporozoite protein. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:6407-17. [PMID: 22615208 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Development of subunit vaccines for malaria that elicit a strong, long-term memory response is an intensive area of research, with the focus on improving the immunogenicity of a circumsporozoite (CS) protein-based vaccine. In this study, we found that a chimeric protein, formed by fusing vaccinia virus protein 14K (A27) to the CS of Plasmodium yoelii, induces strong effector memory CD8(+) T cell responses in addition to high-affinity Abs when used as a priming agent in the absence of any adjuvant, followed by an attenuated vaccinia virus boost expressing CS in murine models. Moreover, priming with the chimeric protein improved the magnitude and polyfunctionality of cytokine-secreting CD8(+) T cells. This fusion protein formed oligomers/aggregates that led to activation of STAT-1 and IFN regulatory factor-3 in human macrophages, indicating a type I IFN response, resulting in NO, IL-12, and IL-6 induction. Furthermore, this vaccination regimen inhibited the liver stage development of the parasite, resulting in sterile protection. In summary, we propose a novel approach in designing CS based pre-erythrocytic vaccines against Plasmodium using the adjuvant-like effect of the immunogenic vaccinia virus protein 14K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneesh Vijayan
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress on Phagocytes’ Function: from Effective Defense to Immunity Evasion Mechanisms. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2011; 59:441-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00005-011-0144-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Bertinaria M, Guglielmo S, Rolando B, Giorgis M, Aragno C, Fruttero R, Gasco A, Parapini S, Taramelli D, Martins YC, Carvalho LJ. Amodiaquine analogues containing NO-donor substructures: Synthesis and their preliminary evaluation as potential tools in the treatment of cerebral malaria. Eur J Med Chem 2011; 46:1757-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2010] [Revised: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Vijay S, Rawat M, Adak T, Dixit R, Nanda N, Srivastava H, Sharma JK, Prasad GBKS, Sharma A. Parasite killing in malaria non-vector mosquito Anopheles culicifacies species B: implication of nitric oxide synthase upregulation. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18400. [PMID: 21483693 PMCID: PMC3070730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Accepted: 03/07/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Anopheles culicifacies, the main vector of human malaria in
rural India, is a complex of five sibling species. Despite being
phylogenetically related, a naturally selected subgroup species B of this
sibling species complex is found to be a poor vector of malaria. We have
attempted to understand the differences between vector and non-vector
Anopheles culicifacies mosquitoes in terms of
transcriptionally activated nitric oxide synthase (AcNOS)
physiologies to elucidate the mechanism of refractoriness. Identification of
the differences between genes and gene products that may impart refractory
phenotype can facilitate development of novel malaria transmission blocking
strategies. Methodology/Principal Findings We conducted a study on phylogenetically related susceptible (species A) and
refractory (species B) sibling species of An. culicifacies
mosquitoes to characterize biochemical and molecular differences in
AcNOS gene and gene elements and their ability to
inhibit oocyst growth. We demonstrate that in species B, AcNOS specific
activity and nitrite/nitrates in mid-guts and haemolymph were higher as
compared to species A after invasion of the mid-gut by P.
vivax at the beginning and during the course of blood feeding.
Semiquantitative RT-PCR and real time PCR data of AcNOS
concluded that this gene is more abundantly expressed in midgut of species B
than in species A and is transcriptionally upregulated post blood meals.
Dietary feeding of L-NAME along with blood meals significantly inhibited
midgut AcNOS activity leading to an increase in oocyst production in
An. culicifacies species B. Conclusions/Significance We hypothesize that upregulation of mosquito innate cytotoxicity due to NOS
in refractory strain to Plasmodium vivax infection may
contribute to natural refractoriness in An. culicifacies
mosquito population. This innate capacity of refractory mosquitoes could
represent the ancestral function of the mosquito immune system against the
parasite and could be utilized to understand the molecular basis of
refractoriness in planning effective vector control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonam Vijay
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology
Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Dwarka, New Delhi,
India
| | - Manmeet Rawat
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology
Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Dwarka, New Delhi,
India
| | - Tridibes Adak
- Vector Biology Laboratory, National Institute
of Malaria Research (ICMR), Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajnikant Dixit
- Host Parasite Interaction Group, National
Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Nutan Nanda
- Molecular Entomology Laboratory, National
Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Harish Srivastava
- Entomology Laboratory, National Institute of
Malaria Research (ICMR) Field Unit, Civil Hospital, Nadiad, Gujarat,
India
| | - Joginder K. Sharma
- Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory, Institute of
Cytology and Preventive Oncology (ICMR), Noida, India
| | | | - Arun Sharma
- Protein Biochemistry and Structural Biology
Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Dwarka, New Delhi,
India
- * E-mail:
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Addai FK. Natural cocoa as diet-mediated antimalarial prophylaxis. Med Hypotheses 2009; 74:825-30. [PMID: 20044213 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Maya of Central America are credited with the first consumption of cocoa and maintaining its ancient Olmec name kakawa translated in English as "God Food", in recognition of its multiple health benefits. The legend of cocoa is receiving renewed attention in recent years, on account of epidemiological and scientific studies that support its cardiovascular health benefits. Increasing numbers of scientific reports corroborating cocoa's antiquated reputation as health food persuaded this author to promote regular consumption of cocoa in Ghana since 2004. Cocoa is readily available in Ghana; the country is the second largest producer accounting for 14% of the world's output. Numerous anecdotal reports of reduced episodic malaria in people who daily drink natural unsweetened cocoa beverage prompted a search for scientific mechanisms that possibly account for cocoa's antimalarial effects. This paper presents the outcome as a hypothesis. METHODS Internet search for literature on effects of cocoa's ingredients on malaria parasites and illness using a variety of search tools. RESULTS Evidential literature suggests five mechanisms that possibly underpin cocoa's anecdotal antimalarial effects. (i) Increased availability of antioxidants in plasma, (ii) membrane effects in general and erythrocyte membrane in particular, (iii) increased plasma levels of nitric oxide, (iv) antimalarial activity of cocoa flavanoids and their derivatives, and (v) boosted immune system mediated by components of cocoa including cocoa butter, polyphenols, magnesium, and zinc. CONCLUSION A hypothesis is formulated that cocoa offers a diet-mediated antimalarial prophylaxis; and an additional novel tool in the fight against the legendary scourge.
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Affiliation(s)
- F K Addai
- Department of Anatomy, University of Ghana Medical School (U.G.M.S.), College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.
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Nahrevanian H, Gholizadeh J, Farahmand M, Assmar M. Patterns of co-association of C-reactive protein and nitric oxide in malaria in endemic areas of Iran. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2008; 103:39-44. [PMID: 18368235 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762008000100006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2007] [Accepted: 12/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to numerous immune factors, C-reactive protein (CRP) and nitric oxide (NO) are believed to be molecules of malaria immunopathology. The objective of this study was to detect CRP and NO inductions by agglutination latex test and Griess microassay respectively in both control and malaria groups from endemic areas of Iran, including Southeastern (SE) (Sistan & Balouchestan, Hormozgan, Kerman) and Northwestern (NW) provinces (Ardabil). The results indicated that CRP and NO are produced in all malaria endemic areas of Iran. In addition, more CRP and NO positive cases were observed amongst malaria patients in comparison with those in control group. A variable co-association of CRP/NO production were detected between control and malaria groups, which depended upon the malaria endemic areas and the type of plasmodia infection. The percentage of CRP/NO positive cases was observed to be lower in NW compare to SE region, which may be due to the different type of plasmodium in the NW (Plasmodium vivax) with SE area (P. vivax, Plasmodium falciparum, mixed infection). The fluctuations in CRP/NO induction may be consistent with genetic background of patients. Although, CRP/NO may play important role in malaria, their actual function and interaction in clinical forms of disease remains unclear.
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Sharma A, Raghavendra K, Adak T, Dash AP. Determination of nitric oxide metabolites, nitrate and nitrite, in Anopheles culicifacies mosquito midgut and haemolymph by anion exchange high-performance liquid chromatography: plausible mechanism of refractoriness. Malar J 2008; 7:71. [PMID: 18442373 PMCID: PMC2390569 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-7-71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2007] [Accepted: 04/28/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The diverse physiological and pathological role of nitric oxide in innate immune defenses against many intra and extracellular pathogens, have led to the development of various methods for determining nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. NO metabolites, nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) are produced by the action of an inducible Anopheles culicifacies NO synthase (AcNOS) in mosquito mid-guts and may be central to anti-parasitic arsenal of these mosquitoes. Method While exploring a plausible mechanism of refractoriness based on nitric oxide synthase physiology among the sibling species of An. culicifacies, a sensitive, specific and cost effective high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed, which is not influenced by the presence of biogenic amines, for the determination of NO2- and NO3- from mosquito mid-guts and haemolymph. Results This method is based on extraction, efficiency, assay reproducibility and contaminant minimization. It entails de-proteinization by centrifugal ultra filtration through ultracel 3 K filter and analysis by high performance anion exchange liquid chromatography (Sphereclone, 5 μ SAX column) with UV detection at 214 nm. The lower detection limit of the assay procedure is 50 pmoles in all midgut and haemolymph samples. Retention times for NO2- and NO3- in standards and in mid-gut samples were 3.42 and 4.53 min. respectively. Assay linearity for standards ranged between 50 nM and 1 mM. Recoveries of NO2- and NO3- from spiked samples (1–100 μM) and from the extracted standards (1–100 μM) were calculated to be 100%. Intra-assay and inter assay variations and relative standard deviations (RSDs) for NO2- and NO3- in spiked and un-spiked midgut samples were 5.7% or less. Increased levels NO2- and NO3- in midguts and haemolymph of An. culicifacies sibling species B in comparison to species A reflect towards a mechanism of refractoriness based on AcNOS physiology. Conclusion HPLC is a sensitive and accurate technique for identification and quantifying pmole levels of NO metabolites in mosquito midguts and haemolymph samples that can be useful for clinical investigations of NO biochemistry, physiology and pharmacology in various biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Sharma
- Protein Biochemistry Laboratory, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), 22 Sham Nath Marg, Delhi- 110 054, India.
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Amri M, Aissa SA, Belguendouz H, Mezioug D, Touil-Boukoffa C. In vitro antihydatic action of IFN-gamma is dependent on the nitric oxide pathway. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2007; 27:781-7. [PMID: 17892399 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2007.0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydatidosis is a widely endemic helminthic disease vectored in human by the larval stage of the metacestode Echinococcus granulosus. It is characterized by the long-term coexistence of chronic infection with detectable humoral and cellular responses against the macroparasite. Previous studies demonstrated interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and nitric oxide (NO) production (in vivo and in vitro) during hydatidosis. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that NO production after IFN-gamma induction may constitute a host defense against E. granulosus. We also investigated the IFN-gamma effect on protoscolices (larval form of the parasite) viability in coculture with hydatid patients' peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). PBMCs from hydatic patients incubated with IFN-gamma (100 U/mL) alone are effective in the killing of protoscolices. This scolicidal activity is concomitant with elevation of nitrite levels. NO release and cytotoxic activity are inhibited by N-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA), a specific inhibitor of the NO pathway and increased by L-arginine, an NO precursor, and tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) cofactor. Our results indicate that IFN-gamma mediated iNOS induction as one of host defense mechanism against human E. granulosus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manel Amri
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire, FSB-USTHB, Université Bab-Ezzouar, PB 32, 16111, Algiers, Algeria
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Low levels of mammalian TGF-beta1 are protective against malaria parasite infection, a paradox clarified in the mosquito host. Exp Parasitol 2007; 118:290-6. [PMID: 17920060 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2007.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2007] [Revised: 08/22/2007] [Accepted: 08/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO), derived from catalysis of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), limits malaria parasite growth in mammals. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 suppresses iNOS in cells in vitro as well as in vivo in mice, but paradoxically severe malaria in humans is associated with low levels of TGF-beta1. We hypothesized that this paradox is a universal feature of infection and occurs in the mosquito Anopheles stephensi, an invertebrate host for Plasmodium that also regulates parasite development with inducible NO synthase (AsNOS). We show that exogenous human TGF-beta1 dose-dependently regulates mosquito AsNOS expression and that parasite killing by low dose TGF-beta1 depends on AsNOS catalysis. Furthermore, induction of AsNOS expression by TGF-beta1 is regulated by NO synthesis. These results suggest that TGF-beta1 plays similar roles during parasite infection in mammals and mosquitoes and that this role is linked to the effects of TGF-beta1 on inducible NO synthesis.
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