Quinolizidine alkaloids are transported to seeds of bitter narrow-leafed lupin

Chemical tools for unpicking plant specialised metabolic pathways

Elucidating the biochemical pathways of specialised metabolites in plants is key to enable or improve their sustainable biotechnological production. Chemical tools can greatly facilitate the discovery of biosynthetic genes and enzymes. Here, we summarise transdisciplinary approaches where methods from chemistry and chemical biology helped to overcome key challenges of pathway elucidation. Based on recent examples, we describe how state-of-the-art isotope labelling experiments can guide the selection of biosynthetic gene candidates, how affinity-based probes enable the identification of novel enzymes, how semisynthesis can improve the availability of elusive pathway intermediates, and how biomimetic reactions provide a better understanding of inherent chemical reactivity. We anticipate that a wider application of such chemical methods will accelerate the pace of pathway elucidation in plants.

Agronomic, Nutritional Traits, and Alkaloids of Lupinus albus, Lupinus angustifolius and Lupinus luteus Genotypes: Effect of Sowing Dates and Locations

Lupins (Lupinus spp.) are legumes with high relevance for the sustainability of agricultural systems as they improve the soil quality, namely, through the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, and have good adaptability to different climates and soil conditions. Besides, they possess high nutritive value, especially due to the high protein content of the seeds. Nevertheless, the plants' productivity and metabolism can be influenced by the genotype, the edaphoclimatic conditions, and the sowing practices. In this work, the effect of edaphoclimatic conditions and sowing dates on the productivity, nutritional factors, and alkaloids of the seeds of L. albus cv. Estoril, L. angustifolius cv. Tango, and L. luteus cv. Cardiga was evaluated. High variability in the seeds and protein productions, nutritional traits, and alkaloid content related to the species was observed, along with a significant effect of the location. Lupinus albus cv. Estoril showed a good compromise between productivity and low alkaloid content, being an interesting genotype for food and feed use in the conditions of this trial.

Deorphanizing solute carriers in Saccharomyces cerevisiae for secondary uptake of xenobiotic compounds

The exchange of small molecules between the cell and the environment happens through transporter proteins. Besides nutrients and native metabolic products, xenobiotic molecules are also transported, however it is not well understood which transporters are involved. In this study, by combining exo-metabolome screening in yeast with transporter characterization in Xenopus oocytes, we mapped the activity of 30 yeast transporters toward six small non-toxic substrates. Firstly, using LC-MS, we determined 385 compounds from a chemical library that were imported and exported by S. cerevisiae. Of the 385 compounds transported by yeast, we selected six compounds (viz. sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, 2-methylpyrazine, cefadroxil, acrylic acid, 2-benzoxazolol) for characterization against 30 S. cerevisiae xenobiotic transport proteins expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The compounds were selected to represent a diverse set of chemicals with a broad interest in applied microbiology. Twenty transporters showed activity toward one or more of the compounds. The tested transporter proteins were mostly promiscuous in equilibrative transport (i.e., facilitated diffusion). The compounds 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, 2-methylpyrazine, cefadroxil, and sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine were transported equilibratively by transporters that could transport up to three of the compounds. In contrast, the compounds acrylic acid and 2-benzoxazolol, were strictly transported by dedicated transporters. The prevalence of promiscuous equilibrative transporters of non-native substrates has significant implications for strain development in biotechnology and offers an explanation as to why transporter engineering has been a challenge in metabolic engineering. The method described here can be generally applied to study the transport of other small non-toxic molecules. The yeast transporter library is available at AddGene (ID 79999).

Imaging plant metabolism in situ

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) has emerged as an invaluable analytical technique for investigating the spatial distribution of molecules within biological systems. In the realm of plant science, MSI is increasingly employed to explore metabolic processes across a wide array of plant tissues, including those in leaves, fruits, stems, roots, and seeds, spanning various plant systems such as model species, staple and energy crops, and medicinal plants. By generating spatial maps of metabolites, MSI has elucidated the distribution patterns of diverse metabolites and phytochemicals, encompassing lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, organic acids, phenolics, terpenes, alkaloids, vitamins, pigments, and others, thereby providing insights into their metabolic pathways and functional roles. In this review, we present recent MSI studies that demonstrate the advances made in visualizing the plant spatial metabolome. Moreover, we emphasize the technical progress that enhances the identification and interpretation of spatial metabolite maps. Within a mere decade since the inception of plant MSI studies, this robust technology is poised to continue as a vital tool for tackling complex challenges in plant metabolism.

Insights from the yield, protein production, and detailed alkaloid composition of white (Lupinus albus), narrow-leafed (Lupinus angustifolius), and yellow (Lupinus luteus) lupin cultivars in the Mediterranean region

Introduction

Lupins and other legumes have been considered as alternative plant-based protein sources to soybeans for both humans and livestock. Furthermore, they can contribute to more sustainable agricultural systems. The productivity and chemical composition of legumes is highly variable between species, cultivars, and with the edaphoclimatic conditions.

Methods

This work evaluated the adaptability of seven Lupinus cultivars in two different sowing locations, during two consecutive years, through the characterization of their seed, as a means of investigating their suitability to be used as a source of food and/or feed.

Results and discussion

Lupinus angustifolius cv. Tango and Lupinus luteus cv. Acos were the most stable genotypes across the environments when considering the seed and protein production, while L. luteus cv. Alburquerque and L. luteus cv. Mister showed less variation in the total alkaloid content across the environments. The edaphoclimatic conditions affected seed and protein yields, as higher rainfall resulted in high productivity. The lower temperatures observed in the first year at both locations caused a reduction in the production of alkaloids in L. luteus cv. Acos and Cardiga. Due to the high alkaloid content of some of the studied cultivars their use as food or feed can pose some safety concerns. However, these cultivars can have high levels of resistance to herbivore and insect attacks, which can be of the utmost importance for the use of these crops for recovering poor or exhausted soils.

A comprehensive metabolomics and lipidomics atlas for the legumes common bean, chickpea, lentil and lupin

Legumes represent an important component of human and livestock diets; they are rich in macro- and micronutrients such as proteins, dietary fibers and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Whilst several health-promoting and anti-nutritional properties have been associated with grain content, in-depth metabolomics characterization of major legume species remains elusive. In this article, we used both gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to assess the metabolic diversity in the five legume species commonly grown in Europe, including common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lentil (Lens culinaris), white lupin (Lupinus albus) and pearl lupin (Lupinus mutabilis), at the tissue level. We were able to detect and quantify over 3400 metabolites covering major nutritional and anti-nutritional compounds. Specifically, the metabolomics atlas includes 224 derivatized metabolites, 2283 specialized metabolites and 923 lipids. The data generated here will serve the community as a basis for future integration to metabolomics-assisted crop breeding and facilitate metabolite-based genome-wide association studies to dissect the genetic and biochemical bases of metabolism in legume species.

The causal mutation leading to sweetness in modern white lupin cultivars

Lupins are high-protein crops that are rapidly gaining interest as hardy alternatives to soybean; however, they accumulate antinutritional alkaloids of the quinolizidine type (QAs). Lupin domestication was enabled by the discovery of genetic loci conferring low QA levels (sweetness), but the precise identity of the underlying genes remains uncertain. We show that pauper, the most common sweet locus in white lupin, encodes an acetyltransferase (AT) unexpectedly involved in the early QA pathway. In pauper plants, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) strongly impairs AT activity, causing pathway blockage. We corroborate our hypothesis by replicating the pauper chemotype in narrow-leafed lupin via mutagenesis. Our work adds a new dimension to QA biosynthesis and establishes the identity of a lupin sweet gene for the first time, thus facilitating lupin breeding and enabling domestication of other QA-containing legumes.

Upcycling post-harvest biomass residues from native European Lupinus species: from straws and pod shells production to nutritive value and alkaloids content for ruminant animals

The production of Lupinus seeds for food and feed is increasing worldwide, which results in large amounts of post-harvest biomass residues, considered of low value and left in the field to be burned or incorporated in the soil. To valorize these agricultural wastes, this work aimed to assess their potential as an alternative feed for ruminants. Thus, the production yield, nutritive value, and alkaloid content of straws and pod shells from three native European Lupinus species, L. albus 'Estoril' (white), L. angustifolius 'Tango' (narrow-leafed), and L. luteus 'Cardiga' (yellow), cultivated in two locations, were evaluated. The dry matter (DM) yield of straws and pod shells were the highest for L. albus 'Estoril' (4.10 t ha^-1) and the lowest for L. angustifolius 'Tango' (1.78 t ha^-1), suggesting a poor adaptation of narrow-leafed lupin to the particularly dry and warm agronomic year. Despite species-specific differences, lupin biomass residues presented higher crude protein (53.0-68.9 g kg^-1 DM) and lignin (103-111 g kg^-1 DM) content than cereal straws usually used in ruminant feeding, thus resulting in higher metabolizable energy (6.43-6.58 MJ kg^-1 DM) content. In vitro digestibility was similar among lupin species (47.7-50.6%) and higher in pod shells (53.7%) than in straws (44.6%). Lupinus albus 'Estoril' and L. luteus 'Cardiga' presented considerable amounts of alkaloids in straws (23.9 and 119 mg kg^-1 DM) and pod shells (20.5 and 298 mg kg^-1 DM), while no alkaloids were detected in L. angustifolius 'Tango' biomass residues. Considering the combined production of straw and pod shells per lupin species, it is anticipated that lupin biomass residues produced per ha can fulfill 85% of the energy and nearly 50% of protein requirements of a flock of 4 to 9 dry and mid-pregnancy sheep with 50 kg body weight for one year. No negative effects on small (ovine) and large (bovine) ruminant species due to alkaloids are expected, even if biomass residues are consumed at up to 85% DM intake. The large production yield along with its nutritive value unveils the potential of lupin biomass residues valorization as alternative fodder for ruminants, promoting sustainability under a circular economy approach.

Impact of environmental factors on the presence of quinolizidine alkaloids in lupins: a review

Lupin seeds have a high potential as an alternative for animal proteins in feed and food. However, the possible presence of alkaloids hinders the usage of lupins in human diets. This review aims to identify the main factors that influence the presence of alkaloids in lupins. A literature study covering English-published scientific papers in Scopus from 1980 to 2022 was performed. Biotic, abiotic, and genotypic factors influence the production of these toxic secondary metabolites by lupines. In particular, sweet cultivars with high 13-hydroxylupanine and 13-tigloyloxylupanine concentrations, abundant light exposure and standard diurnal cycles, well-watering procedures, relatively cold environment, N-deficient fertilizer with 240 mg K kg^-1 and 60 mg P kg^-1, high soil pH, and organic growing system conditions, are the best options to avoid high global alkaloid content. Results of this study can be used to develop predictive mechanistic models, although there is still the necessity to collect additional data by performing multi-variate studies.

Source-Supported Suspect Screening (4S) of Phytotoxins in Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments: A Field Study of Lupinus angustifolius L. (Blue Lupin)

Phytotoxins (PTs) are bioactive secondary metabolites produced by plants. More recently, they have been recognized as important aquatic micropollutants. Despite that, only a few PTs have been detected and reported in terrestrial and aquatic environments, while their source and leaching pathways remain largely unclear. Herein, we established a novel approach named source-supported suspect screening (4S) to discover PTs in different environments, investigate their environmental occurrences, identify their sources, and initiate discussions on their leaching mechanisms. The 4S-approach was demonstrated on a five-month Lupinus angustifolius L. (L. angustifolius) crop field experiment, where plant, topsoil, drainage water, and surface water were sampled and analyzed. As a result, 72 PTs (flavonoids and alkaloids) were identified at high confidence, with 10 PTs fully confirmed. Fifty-three PTs detected in soil or water were linked to L. angustifolius, among which 26 PTs were coherently detected in all three environmental compartments. The occurrence and abundance of PTs in terrestrial soil and aquatic environments were influenced by the plant growth stage and precipitation. Soil served as an intermedium when PTs leached from L. angustifolius to the drainage water, while the degree of retardation and eventual occurrence in the aquatic environment depended on both PTs and soil physico-chemical properties.

Natural or artificial: An example of topographic spatial distribution analysis of mescaline in cactus plants by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging

INTRODUCTION

Differentiating whether plant products are natural or artificial is of great importance in many practical fields, including forensic science, food safety, cosmetics, and fast-moving consumer goods. Information about the topographic distribution of compounds is an important criterion for answering this question. However, of equal importance is the likelihood that topographic spatial distribution information may provide important and valuable information for molecular mechanism study.

METHODS

In this study, we took mescaline, a substance with hallucinogenic properties in cacti of the species Trichocereus pachanoi and Lophophora williamsii, as an example to characterize the spatial distribution of mescaline in plants and flowers by liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometry-matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging at the macroscopic, tissue structure, and even cellular levels.

RESULTS

According to our results, the distribution of mescaline in natural plant was concentrated on the active meristems, epidermal tissues, and protruding parts of Trichocereus pachanoi and Lophophora williamsii, while artificially spiked Lophophora diffusa products showed no such difference in their topographic spatial distribution.

DISCUSSION

This difference in distribution pattern allowed us to distinguish between flowers that could synthesize mescaline on their own and those that had been artificially spiked with mescaline. The interesting topographic spatial distribution results, such as the overlap of the mescaline distribution map and micrographs of the vascular bundles, were consistent with the synthesis and transport theory of mescaline, indicating the potential for applying matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging in botanical research.

Development of an HPLC-MS/MS Method for the Determination of Alkaloids in Lupins

Lupin alkaloids (LAs) represent a class of toxic secondary metabolites in plants, in particular in Lupinus spp.; they are produced as a defense mechanism due to their strong bitter taste and are very dangerous for human and animals. In this work, a sensitive and reliable high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) analytical method for the identification and quantification of thirteen lupin alkaloids was developed and validated according to FDA guidelines. Efficient extraction and clean-up steps, carried out by solid-phase extraction, were finely tuned on the basis of the characteristics of the analytes and lupin samples, providing good selectivity with minimized matrix interference. The effectiveness of the method was proven by the satisfactory recovery values obtained for most of the analytes and a matrix effect ≤23% for all tested levels. In addition, a sensitive and reliable determination of the target compounds was obtained; LOQs were between 1 and 25 µg Kg^-1, i.e., below the requested maximum levels (<200 mg Kg^-1). The method was applied to evaluate the LAs profile in different batches of raw L. albus L. samples, varying in size and across farming treatments.

Space farming: Horticulture systems on spacecraft and outlook to planetary space exploration

Successful human space exploration requires more products than can be taken as payload. There is a need, therefore, for in-space circular manufacturing. Requirements for this include limited resource inflow, from either Earth or other planets and the generation of minimal waste. The provision of nutritious food is a clear need for human survival on the Moon or Mars and is one of the most complex to solve. Demand in large quantities, constant and reliable provision of food requires the development of specialist agricultural technologies. Here, we first review the history of space farming over the past five decades. This survey assesses the technologies which have been tested under the harsh conditions of space, identifying which modern horticultural components are applicable for in-space plant growth. We then outline which plants have been grown and under what conditions, and speculate upon the types of plants that could be selected to best nourish astronauts. Current systems are focussed on experimentation and exploration, but do not yet provide turn-key solutions for efficient food production within a long-term space exploration scenario. With that take, this review aims to provide a perspective on how an engineered closed circular environmental life-support system (ECCLES) might be constructed. To exemplify the latter, nutrient auto accumulation by biofortification is proposed through the integration of space farming and space mining, which is uncharted on Earth.

Indole and quinolizidine alkaloids from blue lupin leach to agricultural drainage water

Phytotoxins are produced in plants including agricultural crops. Lupins and other plants of the Fabaceae family produce toxic alkaloids. These alkaloids have been studied in food and feed, however, the environmental fate of alkaloids produced by cultivated lupins is largely unknown. Therefore, we conducted an agricultural field experiment to investigate the occurrence of indole and quinolizidine alkaloids in lupin plant tissues, soil, soil pore water and in drainage water. During the field experiment, alkaloids were regularly quantified (median concentrations) in lupin (13-8.7 × 10³ ng/g dry weight (dw)), and topsoils at depth 0-5 cm (0.1-10 ng/g dw), and depth 15-30 cm (0.2-8.5 ng/g dw), soil pore water (0.2-7.5 ng/L) and drainage water samples (0.4-18 ng/L). Lupanine was the dominant alkaloid in all collected samples. Cumulative amounts of alkaloids emitted via drainage water were around 0.1-11 mg/ha for individual alkaloids over one growing season. The total cumulative amount of alkaloid in drainage water was 14 mg/ha, which is a very small amount compared to the mass of alkaloid in the lupin biomass (11 kg/ha) and soil (0.02 kg/ha). Nearly half of the alkaloids were exported in the drainage water during high flow events, indicating that alkaloids transport preferentially via macropores. These findings indicate that drainage from lupin cultivated areas contribute to surface water contamination. The environmental and ecotoxicological relevance of alkaloids as newly identified aquatic micropollutants in areas with agricultural activities have yet to be assessed.

Development and application of a virus-induced gene silencing protocol for the study of gene function in narrow-leafed lupin

BACKGROUND

Lupins are promising protein crops with an increasing amount of genomic and transcriptomic resources. The new resources facilitate the in silico identification of candidate genes controlling important agronomic traits. However, a major bottleneck for lupin research and crop improvement is the in planta characterization of gene function. Here, we present an efficient protocol for virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) to down-regulate endogenous genes in narrow-leafed lupin (NLL) using the apple latent spherical virus (ALSV).

RESULTS

We identified ALSV as an appropriate VIGS vector able to infect NLL without causing a discernible phenotype. We created improved ALSV vectors to allow for efficient cloning of gene fragments into the viral genome and for easier viral propagation via agroinfiltration of Nicotiana benthamiana. Using this system, we silenced the visual marker gene phytoene desaturase (PDS), which resulted in systemic, homogenous silencing as indicated by bleaching of newly produced tissues. Furthermore, by silencing lysine decarboxylase (LaLDC)-a gene likely to be involved in toxic alkaloid biosynthesis-we demonstrate the applicability of our VIGS method to silence a target gene alone or alongside PDS in a 'PDS co-silencing' approach. The co-silencing approach allows the visual identification of tissues where silencing is actively occurring, which eases tissue harvesting and downstream analysis, and is useful where the trait under study is not affected by PDS silencing. Silencing LaLDC resulted in a ~ 61% or ~ 67% decrease in transcript level, depending on whether LaLDC was silenced alone or alongside PDS. Overall, the silencing of LaLDC resulted in reduced alkaloid levels, providing direct evidence of its involvement in alkaloid biosynthesis in NLL.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide a rapid and efficient VIGS method for validating gene function in NLL. This will accelerate the research and improvement of this underutilized crop.

Unraveling the Biosynthesis of Quinolizidine Alkaloids Using the Genetic and Chemical Diversity of Mexican Lupins

Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) are synthesized by the genus Lupinus as a defense against herbivores. Synthesis of QAs in lupins is species- and organ-specific. Knowledge about their biosynthesis and their corresponding pathways are still fragmentary, in part because lupins of commercial importance were mainly investigated, representing a small sample of the chemodiversity of the genus. Here, we explore the use of three Mexican lupins: Lupinus aschenbornii, Lupinus montanus, and Lupinus bilineatus as a model to study the physiology of QA biosynthesis. The corresponding QA patterns cover widely and narrowly distributed tetracyclic QAs. Quinolizidine alkaloid patterns of seeds and plantlets at different developmental stages were determined by GLC–MS and compared to identify the onset of de novo QA synthesis and to gain insight into specific and common biosynthesis trends. Onset of de novo QA biosynthesis occurred after the metabolization of seed QA during germination and was species-specific, as expected. A common QA pattern, from which the diversity of QA observed in these species is generated, was not found; however, lupanine and 3β-lupanine were found in the three specieswhile sparteine was not found in Lupinus bilineatus, suggesting that this simplest tetracyclic QA is not the precursor of more complex QAs. Similar patterns of metabolization and biosynthesis of structurally related QAs were observed, suggesting a common regulation.

Expression Profiles of Alkaloid-Related Genes across the Organs of Narrow-Leafed Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and in Response to Anthracnose Infection

The main restraint obstructing the wider adoption of lupins as protein crops is the presence of bitter and toxic quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs), whose contents might increase under exposure to stressful environmental conditions. A poor understanding of how QAs accumulate hinders the breeding of sweet varieties. Here, we characterize the expression profiles of QA-related genes, along with the alkaloid content, in various organs of sweet and bitter narrow-leafed lupin (NLL, Lupinus angustifolius L.). Special attention is paid to the RAP2-7 transcription factor, a candidate regulator of the QA pathway. We demonstrate the upregulation of RAP2-7 and other QA-related genes, across the aerial organs of a bitter cultivar and the significant correlations between their expression levels, thus supporting the role of RAP2-7 as an important regulatory gene in NLL. Moreover, we showed that the initial steps of QA synthesis might occur independently in all aerial plant organs sharing common regulatory mechanisms. Nonetheless, other regulatory steps might be involved in RAP2-7-triggered QA accumulation, given its expression pattern in leaves. Finally, the examination of QA-related gene expression in plants infected with Colletotrichum lupini evidenced no connection between QA synthesis and anthracnose resistance, in contrast to the important role of polyamines during plant–pathogen interactions.

Alkaloids of narrow-leaved lupine as a factor determining alternative ways of the crop's utilization and breeding

Narrow-leaved lupine (Lupinus angustifolius L.), a valuable leguminous crop adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, has a very short history of domestication. For many centuries it was used mainly as a green manure, since the success and prospects of the multi-purpose use of the species depend on its breeding improvement, in particular, on a particular concentration of alkaloids in seeds and green mass. The first varieties of scientific breeding were created only in the 1930s after the appearance of low-alkaloid mutants. Despite wide prospects for use in various areas of the national economy, unstable productivity and susceptibility to diseases hinder the production of this crop. Obviously, breeders deal only with a small part of the gene pool of the species and limited genetic resources, using mainly low-alkaloid (sweet) genotypes to create new varieties. The genetic potential of the species can be used more efficiently. At the same time, it is rational to create highly alkaloid (bitter) varieties for green manure, while food and feed varieties should not lose their adaptive potential, in particular, resistance to pathogens, due to the elimination of alkaloids. In this regard, it seems to be a productive idea to create ‘bitter/sweet’ varieties combining a high content of alkaloids in the vegetative organs and low in seeds, which can be achieved by regulating the synthesis/transport of alkaloids in the plant. The paper discusses the current state of use of the species as a green manure, fodder, food plant. Information is given on the quantity and qualitative composition of narrow-leaved lupine alkaloids, their applied value, in particular, fungicidal, antibacterial, insecticidal, the use of lupine alkaloids as active principles of drugs. Along with promising breeding considerations, the possibility of using technologies for processing raw high-alkaloid materials with the accompanying extraction of valuable ingredients for pharmaceuticals is discussed. Information is briefly presented about the genomic resources of the species and the prospects for their use in marker-assistant selection and genome editing.

Analysis of Genetic Diversity in the Traditional Chinese Medicine Plant 'Kushen' (Sophora flavescens Ait.)

Kushen root, from the woody legume Sophora flavescens, is a traditional Chinese medicine that is a key ingredient in several promising cancer treatments. This activity is attributed in part to two quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs), oxymatrine and matrine, that have a variety of therapeutic activities in vitro. Genetic selection is needed to adapt S. flavescens for cultivation and to improve productivity and product quality. Genetic diversity of S. flavescens was investigated using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) on 85 plants grown from seeds collected from 9 provinces of China. DArTSeq provided over 10,000 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, 1636 of which were used in phylogenetic analysis to reveal clear regional differences for S. flavescens. One accession from each region was selected for PCR-sequencing to identify gene-specific SNPs in the first two QA pathway genes, lysine decarboxylase (LDC) and copper amine oxidase (CAO). To obtain SfCAO sequence for primer design we used a targeted transcript capture and assembly strategy using publicly available RNA sequencing data. Partial gene sequence analysis of SfCAO revealed two recently duplicated genes, SfCAO1 and SfCAO2, in contrast to the single gene found in the QA-producing legume Lupinus angustifolius. We demonstrate high efficiency converting SNPs to Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) markers developing 27 new KASP markers, 17 from DArTSeq data, 7 for SfLDC, and 3 for SfCAO1. To complement this genetic diversity analysis a field trial site has been established in South Australia, providing access to diverse S. flavescens material for morphological, transcriptomic, and QA metabolite analysis. Analysis of dissected flower buds revealed that anthesis occurs before buds fully open suggesting a potential for S. flavescens to be an inbreeding species, however this is not supported by the relatively high level of heterozygosity observed. Two plants from the field trial site were analysed by quantitative real-time PCR and levels of matrine and oxymatrine were assessed in a variety of tissues. We are now in a strong position to select diverse plants for crosses to accelerate the process of genetic selection needed to adapt kushen to cultivation and improve productivity and product quality.